The theory of human capital was developed by supporters of free competition and pricing in Western political economy American economists Theodore Schultz and Gary Becker. For the creation of the foundations of the theory of human capital, they were awarded the Nobel Prizes in Economics - Theodore Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. Among the researchers who made the greatest contribution to the development of the theory of human capital are also M. Blaug, M. Grossman, J. Mintzer, M. Perlman, L. Throw, F. Welch, B. Chiswick, J. Kendrick, R. Solow, R. Lucas, C. Griliches, S. Fabrikant, I. Fisher, E. Denison, etc. economists, sociologists and historians. A Russian-born Simon (Semyon) Kuznets, who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1971, made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory. Crete, S.A. Kurgan and others.

The concept of "human capital" is based on two independent theories:

1) The theory of "investment in a person" was the first of the concepts of Western economists about the reproduction of human productive abilities. Its authors are F. Mahlup (Princeton University), B. Weisbrod (University of Wisconsin), R. Weekstra (University of Colorado), S. Bowles (Harvard University), M. Blaug (University of London), B. Fleischer (Ohio State University) ), R. Campbell and B. Sigel (University of Oregon) and others. Economists of this trend proceed from the Keynesian postulate of the omnipotence of investment. The subject of the study of the concept under consideration is both the internal structure of the "human capital" itself, and the specific processes of its formation and development.

M. Blaug believed that human capital is the present value of past investments in people's skills, and not the value of people themselves.
From the point of view of W. Bowen, human capital consists of the acquired knowledge, skills, motivations and energy that human beings are endowed with and which can be used for a certain period of time in order to produce goods and services. F. Mahlup wrote that unimproved work can differ from improved work, which has become more productive, thanks to investments that increase the physical and mental capacity of a person. These improvements make up human capital.

2) The authors of the theory of "human capital production" are Theodore Schultz and Yorem Ben-Poret (University of Chicago), Gary Becker and Jacob Mintser (Columbia University), L. Throw (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Richard Palman (University of Wisconsin), Zvi Griliches (Harvard University) and others. This theory considered fundamental to Western economic thought.

Schultz Theodore-William (1902-1998) - American economist, Nobel laureate (1979). Born near Arlington (South Dakota, USA). He studied at the college, graduate school of the University of Wisconsin, where in 1930 he received his Ph.D. degree in economics Agriculture". He began his teaching career at the Iowa State College. Four years later, he headed the Department of Economic Sociology. Since 1943 and for nearly forty years, he is a professor of economics at the University of Chicago. The activity of the teacher was connected with active research work. In 1945 he prepared a collection of materials from the conference "Food for the World", in which special attention is paid to the factors of food supply, the structure and migration of the agricultural labor force, the professional qualifications of farmers, agricultural production technology and the direction of investment in farming. In Agriculture in an Unstable Economy (1945), he spoke out against the illiterate use of land, as it leads to soil erosion and other negative consequences for the agricultural economy.

In 1949-1967. T.-V. Schultz - Member of the Board of Directors of the US National Bureau of Economic Research, then - Economic Advisor International Bank reconstruction and development, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), several government departments and organizations.

Among his most famous works are “ Agricultural Production and Welfare "," Transforming Traditional Agriculture "(1964)," Investing in People: The Economy of Population Quality "(1981) and etc.

The American Economic Association awarded T.-V. Schulz Medal named after F. Volcker. He is professor emeritus at the University of Chicago; he was awarded honorary degrees from Illinois, Wisconsin, Dijon, Michigan, North Carolina and Chilean Catholic University.

According to the theory of human capital, two factors interact in production - physical capital (means of production) and human capital (acquired knowledge, skills, energy that can be used in the production of goods and services). People spend money not only on fleeting pleasures, but also on monetary and non-monetary income in the future. Investments are directed to human capital. These are the costs of maintaining health, obtaining education, costs associated with finding a job, obtaining the necessary information, migration, professional training in production. The amount of human capital is estimated by the potential income that it is able to give.

T.-V. Schultz argued that human capital- it is a form of capital, because it serves as a source of future earnings or future satisfaction, or both. And he becomes human because he is a constituent part of man.

According to the scientist, human resources are similar, on the one hand, to natural resources, and on the other, to material capital. Immediately after birth, a person, like Natural resources, has no effect. Only after appropriate "processing" does a person acquire the qualities of capital. That is, with the growth of costs for improving the quality of the labor force, labor as a primary factor is gradually transformed into human capital. T.-V. Schultz is convinced that, given the contribution of labor to output, human production capabilities are higher than all other forms of wealth combined. The peculiarity of this capital, according to the scientist, is that regardless of the sources of formation (own, public or private), its use is controlled by the owners themselves.

The microeconomic foundation of the theory of human capital was laid by G.-S. Becker.

Becker Harry-Stanley (born 1930) - American economist, Nobel laureate (1992). Born in Pottsville (Pennsylvania, USA). In 1948 he studied at J. Madison High School in New York. Graduated from Princeton University in 1951. His scientific career is associated with the Columbia (1957-1969) and Chicago universities. In 1957 he defended his doctoral dissertation and became a professor.

Since 1970 G.-S. Becker served as head of the Department of Social Sciences and Sociology at the University of Chicago. Taught at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University. Collaborated with Business Week.

He is an active supporter market economy... His legacy includes many works: "The Economic Theory of Discrimination" (1957), "Treatise on the Family" (1985), "Theory of Rational Expectations" (1988), "Human Capital" (1990), "Rational Expectations and the Effect of the Cost of Consumption" ( 1991), Fertility and the Economy (1992), Education, Labor, Labor Quality and the Economy (1992), and others.

The cross-cutting idea of the scientist's works is that, making decisions in his Everyday life, a person is guided by economic reasoning, although he is not always aware of this. He argues that the market for ideas and motives functions according to the same laws as the market for goods: supply and demand, competition. This also applies to issues such as weddings, starting a family, training, choosing a profession. In his opinion, many psychological phenomena lend themselves to economic assessment and measurement, such as, for example, satisfaction-dissatisfaction with the material situation, the manifestation of envy, altruism, egoism, etc.

Opponents of G.-S. Becker argue that by focusing on economic calculations, he downplays the importance of moral factors. However, the scientist has an answer to this: moral values different people are different, and it will take a long time until they become the same, if this is ever possible. Personal economic benefit seeks to get a person with any morality and intellectual level.

In 1987 G.-S. Becker was elected president of the American Economic Association. He is a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the US National Academy of Sciences, the US National Academy of Education, national and international societies, an editor of economics journals, and an honorary doctorate from Stanford, Chicago, Illinois, and Hebrew Universities.

The starting point for G.-S. Becker had the idea that when investing in training and education, students and their parents act rationally, taking into account all the benefits and costs. Like “ordinary” entrepreneurs, they compare the expected marginal rate of return on such investments with the return on alternative investments (interest on bank deposits, dividends on securities). Depending on what is more economically feasible, they decide whether to continue their education or stop it. The rates of return are the regulator of the distribution of investments between different types and levels of education, and between the education system and the rest of the economy. High rates of return indicate underinvestment, low rates of overinvestment.

G.-S. Becker carried out a practical calculation of the economic efficiency of education. For example, higher education income is defined as the difference in lifetime earnings between those who graduated from college and those who did not go beyond high school. Among the costs of training, the main element was recognized as “lost earnings,” that is, earnings that students lost during the years of study. (Essentially, lost earnings measure the value of students' time spent building their human capital.) Comparing the benefits and costs of education made it possible to determine the return on investment in a person.

G.-S. Becker believed that a low-skilled worker does not become a capitalist as a result of the diffusion (dispersal) of ownership of corporate shares (although this point of view is popular). This happens through the acquisition of knowledge and skills that have economic value. The scientist was convinced that lack of education is the most serious factor holding back economic growth.

The scientist insists on the difference between special and general investments in a person (and more broadly - between general and specific resources in general). Special training provides the employee with knowledge and skills that increase the future productivity of its recipient only in the company that trains him (various forms of rotation programs, familiarizing newcomers with the structure and internal regulations of the enterprise). In the process of general training, the employee acquires knowledge and skills that increase the productivity of its recipient, regardless of the company for which he works (training to work on a personal computer).

According to G.-S. Becker, investments in the education of citizens, in health care, in particular in children, in social programs aimed at preserving, supporting, replenishing personnel, is tantamount to investing in the creation or acquisition of new equipment or technologies, which in the future will be returned with the same profits. So, according to his theory, support by entrepreneurs of schools and universities is not charity, but concern for the future of the state.

According to G.-S. Becker, general training is paid in some way by the workers themselves. In an effort to improve their qualifications, they agree to a lower one during the period of study wages and later have income from general training. After all, if the training was financed by firms, then every time such workers are fired, they would get rid of their investments in them. Conversely, specialized training is paid for by firms, and they also receive income from it. In case of dismissal on the initiative of the company, the costs would be borne by the employees. As a result, the general human capital, as a rule, is generated by special “firms” (schools, colleges), and the special one is formed directly in the workplace.

The term “special human capital” helped to understand why employees with long work experience in one place less often change jobs, and why vacancies are filled in firms mainly through internal movements of the service, and not through hiring in the external market.

Having studied the problems of human capital, G.-S. Becker became one of the founders of new sections of economic theory - the economics of discrimination, the economics of external economic activity, the economics of crime, etc. He threw a "bridge" from economics to sociology, demography, forensic science; was the first to introduce the principle of rational and optimal behavior in those industries where, as researchers previously believed, habits and irrationality prevailed.

1. Classical theory of personnel management.

Since the last century, there has been a study of problems related to the peculiarities of human work in production and in other areas. This science is called Taylorism, because it was founded by Taylor F.W. - engineer, scientist, entrepreneur. He founded his school of management based on the theory of personnel management. Taylor's theory of management Taylor developed a system that is a set of methods for the distribution of labor norms, organization and management of production. Also at the heart of his teachings was the need for the selection of labor, its correct placement and satisfactory pay in order to improve the intensity of productivity. The basis of Taylor's management is a qualitative analysis of all employee actions, the elimination of unnecessary movements in the process of performing labor and scientific rationing of activities, taking into account the needs and capabilities of each employee. Thus, Taylor's scientific management is based on the level of implementation of such approaches as: production; processes at each stage; jobs for qualified personnel. At one time, the scientist was accused of making the worker an appendage of the machine, since, in his opinion, the mechanization and modernization of the working process was the basis for making labor easier and increasing the size of production and the amount of output produced. In fact, this approach was correct, since it was based not only on the need for development in an intensive way, but also required workers to be conscious of all innovations. This was done on the basis of incentives in various ways: encouragement through recognition; improving the quality of work; ease of execution of the workflow; building teams and strengthening team spirit. Thus, the theory of personnel management according to Taylor is based on loyalty to employees, care and training, and in return, conscientious performance and diligence are required. At that time, this idea was not successful among companies and remained only on paper as a "sweat squeezing system", but it served as an impetus for the development of science and technology, accelerated the industrial revolution. This theory works, and in practice it turned out to be very useful and productive. A striking example of this is the Japanese management system. In the organization of production, all inconvenient movements have been completely removed, which makes it possible to achieve good synchronization of all stages of product development. Also, the main tasks of management are the division of labor, cooperation, the definition of specialization and the management of the coordination of the labor process. The main advantage in this system is management together with employees, for whose work and initiative a reward system is also provided.

2. The theory of human relations

Elton Mayo pursued several goals in developing his theory of human relations:

to increase the motivation of a person to work;

to promote the personal growth of any employee;

to create a level of psychological preparation of the employee in innovations in production;

improve the quality of management and organizational decisions;

to ensure the development of cooperation among employees and their work ethic.

Human relations theory emerged from a series of experiments Mayo conducted in Hawthorne near Chicago. The experimental work took place in 4 stages and its total duration was 13 years. It all started with an appeal to an American psychologist by the management of one of the enterprises, which experienced a high turnover of personnel. After a series of reorganization measures arranged by Mayo, turnover decreased, and the psychologist made his first conclusion about how important the process of communication in the workplace is. In the second stage, the scientist was faced with the task of increasing the incentives of workers to increase labor productivity. By increasing the illumination of the room in one of the two experimental groups, Mayo noticed a paradox - the better the illumination became in one control group, the better the production became in the other, where there was almost no lighting. This discovery made it possible to draw conclusions about how important the attention from the management and administration of the enterprise is for the employee. Encouraged by the unexpected results, Elton Mayo continued to work and in the third stage began experimenting with different working conditions. He added a couple of days off a week, extended breaks during the work day, and increased his paycheck. Under these conditions, labor productivity has become significantly higher. This fact led to three important conclusions:

people have a need to belong to their work group;

in production, there are various formal and informal groups (based on friendships and common interests);

any informal group can be used in the interests of the enterprise, influencing the entire group through one employee and thereby increasing labor productivity.

As a result of two years of research, in a team subjected to Mayo's experiments, labor productivity increased by 40%. At the fourth stage of the experiment, the psychologist introduced a special person into one of the informal groups in order to study its essence from the inside. Thanks to these observations, he concluded that within the informal group there is its own morality. It consisted in the following rules - in a group you cannot stand out and be an upstart, you cannot do too little and too much work. In addition, the group had its own ways of mutual assistance and support. This led the scientist to the conclusion that within the group there is its own morality and its own norms of behavior in the process of labor activity.

Thanks to the work of Elton Mayo in the United States, the concept of "human relations" quickly spread, which eventually led to the creation of a formal program of management of various organizations. This program contained the following principles:

A person is a creature who needs to belong to a certain group and maintain group behavior.

The orientation of the management of enterprises should be directed first of all to people, and only then to products. Those. in order to increase production efficiency, the first place should be a high organization of working conditions and communication.

Remuneration for the work of the entire team will have a much greater effect than encouraging only one employee.

Human relations theory has a number of distinctive features:

wide participation of ordinary people in the management of the organization;

the combination of formal and informal power structures;

exaggeration of the role of the small group;

narrow specialization.

Representatives of the theory of human relations were unanimous on one thing: a rigid hierarchy of subordination is abhorrent to human nature. Therefore, each of the scientists was looking for a new organizational structure and new forms of work and methods of increasing the motivation of employees of enterprises.

3. Human Resource Theory (School of Behavioral Sciences)

The development of a systemic and situational approach led to the emergence of a fundamentally new concept of personnel management - the theory of human resources. This concept is incorporated into the strategic management system, which implies that the function of personnel management has become the competence of senior officials of the organization. The nature of the personnel policy has also changed: it has become more active and purposeful.

The specificity of human resources, in contrast to all other types of resources (material, financial, informational, etc.), is as follows:

people are endowed with intelligence, therefore, their reaction to external influence (control) is emotionally meaningful, and not mechanical; the process of interaction between subjects and objects of management is two-way;

due to the possession of intelligence, people are capable of continuous improvement and development, which is the most important and long-term source of increasing the efficiency of any society or individual organization;

people choose a certain type of activity, consciously setting certain goals for themselves. Therefore, the subject of management must provide all the possibilities for the realization of these goals, create conditions for the implementation of motivational attitudes towards work.

Human resources are the competitive wealth of any organization. In the 70s. XX century HR and HR departments in many foreign companies were transformed into HR departments, where, along with traditional functions (hiring, recruiting, training, business assessment, etc.), they began to perform functions of strategic human resources management, shaping personnel policy, developing programs personnel development, planning the need for human resources, etc.

Human resource management presupposes a strong and adaptive corporate culture that fosters an atmosphere of mutual responsibility among employees, an orientation towards organizational innovation and open discussion of problems.

Implementing the technology of human resource management, the organization proceeds from the fact that if it invests enough funds in personnel, then it has the right to demand loyalty and a responsible attitude to work from its employees. Such a personnel policy is the basis for the implementation of a successful, competitive strategy, is based on mutual consideration of the interests of managers and personnel and their mutual responsibility, opens up the possibility of involving employees in making managerial decisions, conducting mutual consultations, providing access to information about the affairs of the organization, etc.

Many publications reflect two poles of views on the role of a person in social production:

man as a resource of the production system (labor, human, human) is an important element of the production and management process;

a person as a person with needs, motives, values, relationships is the main subject of management.

Personnel management is a specific area of management activity, the main object of which is the professional capabilities of a person.

The concepts of personnel management should not only be based on certain philosophical, sociological, pedagogical, psychological views of a person in an organization, but also indicate the appropriate social mechanism that would turn what is declared into reality and provide a person with conditions for free use and disposal of his abilities.

4. The theory of human capital (Mr. Becker, J. Mizzer, T. Schultz)

In our century, two Nobel Prizes in economics have been awarded for the development of the theory of human capital - Theodore Schultz in 1979 and Gary Becker in 1992. Although the main contribution to the popularization of the idea of human capital was made by T. Schultz, 2 the eponymous treatise by G. Becker. In his analysis, he proceeded from the concept of human behavior as rational and expedient, applying concepts such as scarcity, price, opportunity cost, etc., to a wide variety of aspects of human life, including those that have traditionally been under the jurisdiction of other social disciplines. The model formulated in it became the basis for all subsequent studies in this area. Human capital is everyone's stock of knowledge, skills, motivations. Investments in it can be education, accumulation of professional experience, health protection, geographical mobility, information retrieval. The researcher's initial interests were in assessing the economic return on education. Becker was the first to carry out a statistically correct calculation of the economic efficiency of education. To determine income from, for example, higher education, the lifetime earnings of those who graduated from college were subtracted from the lifetime earnings of those who did not go beyond high school. The costs of education, along with direct costs (tuition fees, dormitory fees, etc.), contain as the main element “lost earnings,” that is, income lost by students during the years of study. Essentially, lost earnings measure the value of the students' time spent learning and are the opportunity cost of using it. Defining the return on investment in studies as the ratio of income to costs, Becker got a figure of 12-14% of annual profit.

5.Theories of strategic human resource management (Fombrun village, Bir metro station, Boxall village)

Human Resource Management Strategy

1. provides a direct relationship between the overall purpose of the organization (mission), policies and competitive activities that should be subordinated to the achievement of common strategic goals.

2. Long-term goals of the organization and a conceptual approach to their solution. Mission is the reason for the existence of the organization, its core values and ideals.

Policy - A detailed approach to the main components of strategy, rule and principle! running a business HRM strategy deals with talent decisions that have a significant and lasting effect on the employment and development of people in an organization to achieve its strategic goals.

Having an HRM strategy in an organization means that:

The attraction and development of employees is carried out purposefully and thoughtfully, in conjunction with the mission and strategic goals of the organization's development;

Senior managers take responsibility for developing, implementing and evaluating the HRM strategy;

There is a relationship between the MD development strategy of the Czech Republic and the development strategy of the organization;

An organization thinks about the satisfaction of its customers and its employees. HRM strategy components:

Employee engagement

Staff reduction

Personel assessment

Staff development

Reward

Organizational culture. Key factors of HRM strategy:

1.strategy of the organization (innovation strategy, strategy minimum costs, quality improvement strategy).

2. The life cycle of the organization (formation, growth, maturity, reduction, reorganization of production).

3. Organization size (large, medium, small)

4. environment (resource availability, dynamism, degree of complexity).

The theory of human capital began to be dealt with back in the 19th century. Then it became one of the promising directions in the development of economic science. Already from the second half of the twentieth century. it has become a major achievement, primarily in the economics of education and labor. In the economic literature, the concept of human capital is considered in a broad and in a narrow sense. In a narrow sense, "one of the forms of capital is education. It was called human because this form becomes part of man, and capital is due to the fact that it is a source of future satisfaction or future earnings, or both together." In a broad sense, human capital is formed through investment (long-term investment) in a person in the form of costs for education and training of labor force in production, for health care, migration and search for information on prices and incomes.

In the "Economic Encyclopedia" human capital is defined as "a special type of investment, a set of costs for the development of human reproductive potential, improving the quality and improving the functioning of the labor force. The human capital objects usually include knowledge of a general educational and special nature, skills, accumulated experience. For more full and detailed characteristics of human capital use a functional approach.The principle of functionality of the definition characterizes the phenomenon not only from the point of view of its internal structure, but from the point of view of its functional purpose, final target use.

Therefore, human capital is not just a collection of skills, knowledge, and abilities that a person possesses. First, it is the accumulated stock of skills, knowledge, and abilities. Secondly, it is such a stock of skills, knowledge, abilities that is expediently used by a person in a particular sphere of social reproduction and contributes to the growth of labor productivity and production. Thirdly, the expedient use of this stock in the form of high-performance activity naturally leads to an increase in the employee's earnings (income). And, fourthly, an increase in income stimulates and motivates a person through investments that may relate to health, education, etc., to increase, accumulate a new stock of skills, knowledge and motivations in order to use it effectively again in the future.

Features of human capital:

1. In modern conditions, human capital is the main value of society and the main factor economic growth;

2. The formation of human capital requires significant costs from the person himself and the whole society;

3. Human capital in the form of skills and abilities is a certain stock, i.e. can be cumulative;

4. Human capital can wear out physically, change its value economically and be depreciated;

5. Human capital differs from physical capital in terms of the degree of liquidity;

6. Human capital is inseparable from its carrier - a living human person;

7. Regardless of the sources of formation, which can be state, family, private, etc., the use of human capital and the receipt of direct income is controlled by the person himself.

In the economic literature, there are several approaches to the classification of types of human capital. Types of human capital can be classified by cost elements, investment in human capital. For example, the following components are distinguished: the capital of education, the capital of health and the capital of culture.
From the point of view of the nature of promoting the economic well-being of society, there is a distinction between consumer and productive human capital. Consumer capital creates a stream of services consumed directly and thus contributes to social utility.

It can be creative and educational activities. The result of such activities is expressed in providing the consumer with such consumer services, which lead to the emergence of new ways to meet needs or improve the efficiency of existing ways to satisfy them. Productive capital creates a flow of services, the consumption of which contributes to public utility. In this case, we mean scientific and educational activities that have a direct practical use it is in production (creation of means of production, technologies, production services and products).

The next criterion for the classification of types of human capital is the difference between the forms in which it is embodied. Living capital includes knowledge embodied in a person. Inanimate capital is created when knowledge is embodied in physical, material forms. Institutional capital consists of living and non-living capital associated with the production of services that meet the collective needs of society. It includes all governmental and non-governmental institutions that promote the efficient use of two types of capital.

By the form of training employees in the workplace, one can distinguish special human capital and total human capital... Specialized human capital includes skills and knowledge acquired as a result of special training and is of interest only to the firm where they were obtained. Unlike special human capital, general human capital is knowledge that can be in demand in various spheres of human activity.

Thus, with the existence of a large number of definitions and types of "human capital", this concept, like many terms, is a "metaphor, transfers the properties of one phenomenon to another according to a common feature for them." Human capital is the most important component of modern productive capital, which is represented by a rich stock of knowledge, developed abilities inherent in a person, determined by intellectual and creative potential. The main factor for the existence and development of human capital is investment in human capital.

Human capital- an assessment of the potential ability embodied in an individual to bring income... Includes innate abilities and talents, as well as education and acquired qualifications.

Are you sure you are human?

The concept of human capital was developed by American scientists, laureates of the Nobel Prize in Economics Gary Becker and Theodore Schultz... They showed that investment in human capital can lead to high economic effect and that in recent decades they increasingly determine the development of the economy, especially in industrialized countries.

Human capital- a set of knowledge, abilities, skills used to meet the diverse needs of a person and society as a whole. The term was first used by Theodore Schultz, and his successor, Gary Becker, developed this idea, substantiating the effectiveness of investment in human capital and formulating an economic approach to human behavior.

Initially, human capital was understood only as the aggregate of investments in a person that increases his ability to work - education and professional skills. In the future, the concept of human capital has expanded significantly. Latest calculations made by experts The World Bank, include consumer spending - the costs of families for food, clothing, housing, education, health care, culture, as well as government spending for these purposes.

Human capital in a broad sense, it is an intensive productive factor of economic development, development of society and the family, including the educated part labor resources, knowledge, tools of intellectual and managerial labor, living environment and labor activity, ensuring the effective and rational functioning of human capital as a productive factor of development.

Briefly: Human capital Is intelligence, health, knowledge, high-quality and productive work and quality of life.

Human capital- the main factor of formation and development innovative economy and the knowledge economy as the next highest stage of development.

One of the conditions for the development and improvement of the quality of human capital is a high index of economic freedom.

They use the classification of human capital:

1. Individual human capital.

2. The human capital of the firm.

3. National human capital.

In national wealth, human capital in developed countries ah is from 70 to 80%. In Russia, about 50%.

The concept of human capital is a natural development and generalization of the concepts of the human factor and human resource, however, human capital is a broader economic category. The founders of the theory of human capital (HC) gave it a narrow definition, which has expanded over time and continues to expand, including all new components of the HC. As a result, HC has become a complex and intensive factor in the development of the modern economy - the knowledge economy.

Currently, on the basis of the theory and practice of Cheka, a successful development paradigm of the United States and leading European countries... On the basis of the HC theory, which was lagging behind, Sweden modernized its economy and regained its leading position in the world economy in the 2000s. In a historically short period of time, Finland has managed to move from a primarily resource-based economy to an innovative economy. And to create their own competitive high technologies, without abandoning the deepest processing of their main natural wealth - forests. Managed to come out on top in the world in the ranking of the competitiveness of the economy as a whole. Moreover, the Finns created their innovative technologies and products precisely on the income from timber processing into goods with high added value.

All this took place not because the theory and practice of human capital realized a kind of magic wand, but because it became the response of economic theory and practice to the challenges of the time, to the challenges of the innovative economy (knowledge economy) and venture capital science emerging in the second half of the 20th century. -technical business.

The development of science, the formation of the information society to the fore as components of a complex intensive development factor - human capital - have put forward knowledge, education, health, quality of life of the population and the leading specialists themselves, who determine the creativity and innovativeness of national economies.

In the context of the globalization of the world economy, in the conditions of a free flow of any capital, including the Cheka, from country to country, from region to region, from city to city in conditions of intense international competition, accelerated development of high technologies.

And countries with accumulated high-quality human capital have enormous advantages in creating stable conditions for the growth of the quality of life, the creation and development of the knowledge economy, information society, and the development of civil society. That is, countries with an educated, healthy and optimistic population, competitive world-class professionals in all types of economic activities, in education, science, management and other spheres.

Understanding and choosing HC as the main factor in development literally dictates a systematic and integrated approach when developing a concept or development strategy and linking all other private strategies and programs with them. This dictate follows from the essence of the national Cheka as a multi-component development factor. Moreover, this diktat especially emphasizes the living conditions, work and the quality of the tools of specialists that determine the creativity and creative energy of the country.

The core of the Cheka, of course, was and remains a man, but now he is an educated, creative and proactive man with a high level of professionalism. Human capital itself determines the main share in the modern economy. national wealth countries, regions, municipalities and organizations. At the same time, the share of unskilled labor in the GDP of developed and developing countries, including Russia, is getting smaller, and in technologically advanced countries it is already vanishingly small.

Therefore, the division of labor into unskilled labor and labor requiring education, special skills and knowledge is gradually losing its original meaning and economic content when defining HC, which the founders of the HC theory identified with educated people and their accumulated knowledge and experience. The concept of HC as an economic category is constantly expanding along with the development of the world information community and the knowledge economy.

Human capital in a broad definition is an intensive productive factor in the development of the economy, society and family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, tools for intellectual and managerial labor, the environment and labor activity, which ensure the effective and rational functioning of the Cheka as a productive factor of development.

Human capital is formed through investments in improving the level and quality of life of the population, in intellectual activity.

Including - in upbringing, education, health, knowledge (science), entrepreneurial ability and climate, in Information Support labor, in the formation of an effective elite, in the safety of citizens and business and economic freedom as well as culture, art and other components. The Cheka is also being formed due to the influx from other countries. Or decreases due to its outflow, which is still observed in Russia.

V composition of human capital includes investments and returns from them in the toolkit of intellectual and managerial work, as well as investments in the environment for the functioning of the Cheka, ensuring its effectiveness.

Komarova A.S.

Formation of the concept of "human capital"

The concept of human capital is one of the central places in the modern consciousness of society. Technological progress is increasingly being introduced into the lives of people, therefore, more and more demands are made on a person, his education, and qualifications. Questions about the role of a person in production, about the mode of production, about the transfer of knowledge, etc., are becoming more and more relevant.

Economic category“Human capital” was formed gradually. At first, this meant the knowledge and ability of a person to work. So in the 17th century. one of the founders of classical political economy in England W. Petty tried to assess the monetary value of the productive properties of a person's personality. According to him, the wealth of society depends on the nature of the occupation of people and their ability to work. Later, many other scientists dealt with the consideration of "human capital in their works, for example, this was reflected in the works of" The Wealth of Nations "(1775) by the Scottish economist, one of the founders of modern economic theory, Adam Smith," Principles of Economic Science "(1890-1891) by the English economist , the founder of the neoclassical direction in economics, Alfred Marshall.

In the future, the concept of human capital has expanded significantly. Analysis of statistical data on the growth of the economies of the developed countries in the middle of the XX century.

Human capital

gave impetus to the development of the theory of human capital.

So the American economist of Russian origin V.V. Leontiev (1905 - 1999), winner of the 1973 Nobel Prize in Economics "for the development of the input-output method", investigated the import and export of US goods. The conclusions of his work were as follows: the labor intensity of goods imported by the United States is quite high, but the price of labor in the value of the goods is much lower than in the export supplies of the United States. The capital intensity of labor in the United States is significant, together with high labor productivity, this leads to a significant influence of the price of labor in export supplies. The analysis of human capital became popular after the publication of Leontiev's work and was comprehensively developed in the works of Schultz in 1961 and Baker in 1964.

The foundations of the theory of human capital were laid by the American economist, Nobel laureate Theodore Schultz (1902-1998). He introduced the concept of "human capital" into scientific literature, which he understood as "a set of knowledge, skills, and abilities that are used to meet the diverse needs of a person and society as a whole." In his publications The Emerging Economic Scene and Schooling, Capital Creation by Education, and so on, Schultz developed a basic theoretical model for the theory of human capital. Gradually, his concept that investment in education (i.e. in human capital) is a decisive factor has become widespread. By investment in human capital, he understood investment in education in educational institutions, in enterprises, as well as investment in health care, education and science.

1992 Nobel Prize Laureate Harry Becker was the first to transfer the concept of human capital to the micro level. According to Becker, the human capital of an enterprise is a combination of the skills, knowledge and skills of a person.

In his book Human Capital, Becker (1964) developed a theoretical model that served as the basis for further developments in this direction and was recognized as a classic of modern economics. Becker's merit also lies in the fact that he was the first to determine the economic efficiency of education, using a statistically correct calculation.

According to the definition of the concept of the American-Israeli economist Stanley Fisher, “human capital is a measure of the person's ability to generate income. Human capital includes innate ability and talent, as well as education and acquired qualifications. " This definition can be considered a definition of human capital in a narrow sense.

In further research in this area, the works of the following economists were of great importance (see table).

Table. Contribution to the development of the theory of human capital

	FULL NAME. scientist, years of life	Key findings in the development of the theory of human capital (HC)
	Simon (Semyon) Blacksmith	A high level and quality of accumulated HC is necessary for the accelerated implementation of institutional reforms. A sufficiently high level and quality of the HC of a country with a catching-up economy ensures its access to a stable growth of per capita GDP and an increase in the level and quality of life of the population. HC is the main dominant of the possible stable growth of the economies of developing countries.
	Robert Solow	The Solow model (1950-1969) allows one to evaluate different options for the state's economic policy, its impact on the standard of living….
	John Kendrick	Defines human capital as the ability to create product and income over time, including non-market forms of income. The cost of health care over a certain period of time has an investment effect in both monetary and psychological forms.
	Lester Karl Throw (born 1938)	Includes traits such as "respect for political and social stability" in human capital.
	John Stuart Mill (1806 - 1873)	He wrote: “The man himself ... I do not regard as wealth. But his acquired abilities, which exist only as a means and are generated by labor, with good reason, I believe, fall into this category ”; "The skill, energy and perseverance of the country's workers are as much considered its wealth as their tools and machines."
	Abalkin Leonid Ivanovich (1930 - 2011)	He considered human capital as the sum of innate abilities, general and special education, acquired professional experience, creative potential, moral, psychological and physical health, motives of activity that provide an opportunity to generate income.
	Dyatlov Sergey Alekseevich	“Human capital is a certain stock of health, knowledge, skills, abilities, motivations, formed as a result of investments and accumulated by a person, which are expediently used in the labor process, contributing to the growth of his productivity and earnings”.
	Simkina Lyudmila Georgievna	Human capital - based on saving time enrichment of life, is the main relation of the modern innovative economic system.

Human capital in a broad sense is an intensive productive factor of economic development, the development of society and the family, including the educated part of the labor force, knowledge, tools for intellectual and managerial labor, living environment and labor activity, ensuring the efficient and rational functioning of human capital as a productive factor of development.

The ideas behind human capital theory have had a major impact on economic policy states. Thanks to her, the attitude of society towards investing in a person has changed. This provided a theoretical basis for the accelerated development of the education and training system in many countries of the world.

Time has shown that the concept of "human capital" has several interpretations and interpretations, depending on the nature of the economic, microeconomic and / or sociological problems being solved. In the future, strict differentiation and systematization of such tasks will lead to a corresponding differentiation and classification of interpretations of the concept of human capital.

Literature:

1. Becker G. Human capital: theoretical and empirical analysis. - M., 1964 .-- 234 p. [electronic resource] - access mode. - http://stepantsova.wordpress.com/2012/05/01/y (date of access: 22.10.2012).

2. Makarova EO Human capital in an innovative economy // Bulletin of the Kazan State Agrarian University.-2008.-№ 2-P. 74-78

3. Korchagin Yu. A. Russian human capital: a factor of development or degradation? - Voronezh: CIRE, 2005 [electronic resource] ‑ access mode. ‑ Http: //www.lerc.ru/? Part = articles & art = 3 & page = 16 (date of access: 14.10.2012).

4. The Free Encyclopedia: Wikipedia. Human capital // [electronic resource] - Access mode. - URL: ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Human_capital (date accessed: 18.10.2012).

ODiplom // Economy // 01/18/2017

Bibliographic description:

A.K. Nesterov The accumulation of human capital [Electronic resource] // Educational encyclopedia ODiplom.ru

The accumulation of human capital is characterized by a deferred nature of increasing the efficiency of its use, since the increase in the knowledge and experience of individuals does not manifest itself in practice immediately, as a result, labor productivity also rises with a delay.

The need to accumulate human capital

The need to accumulate human capital is due to the existence of a person's system of needs.

The structure and characteristics of the needs of a modern person are presented in the form of a complex system of goals, each of which pursues the satisfaction of specific needs. At the same time, needs are grouped into material, spiritual and social, and all together they are aimed at achieving the main goal of production. Thus, human needs are the main motive for economic activity in general.

As a result, in order to ensure an increase in his standard of living, a person is interested in the accumulation of human capital, which will increase the value of his work and allow him to satisfy more of his needs, to pay attention to his needs. higher order... This is the subjective side of human capital accumulation.

On the other hand, in modern conditions, long-term economic growth is based on technical progress and innovations, which require a qualitative improvement in human activity. Consequently, the objective side of the accumulation of human capital is associated with an increase in its role as the main factor of economic growth, which is one of the main conditions for development. national economy.

From the point of view of modern economic conditions, human capital is characterized by the qualities, abilities and motives of a person, contributing to his productive labor activity.

Accumulation of human capital manifests itself in the development of 3 components:

Human qualities associated with work - intelligence, intelligence, energy, reliability, responsibility, etc.
Abilities, skills, abilities of a person: giftedness, imagination, ingenuity, learnability, professional skills, experience, etc.
A person's motivations (related and not directly related to work): goal orientation, communication, teamwork, etc.

Accumulation of human capital

The increasing role of human capital in the modern economy is obvious. It is necessary to create a large-scale systemic framework that stimulates the accumulation of human capital. Taking into account the current conditions, the problems of economic growth and development faced by the modern economy, the accumulation of human capital and its subsequent use will make it possible to solve many issues related to the development of mankind and economic growth.

In the modern economy, the role of man has greatly increased compared to the last century, which is reflected in the strong influence of human capital on the economic growth and development of the country's economy. Human capital will make it possible to qualitatively improve production processes and creates the preconditions for intensive economic development, reducing the role of extensive economic growth.

Specificity and forms of human capital accumulation

The accumulation of human capital is long-term and requires significant investments from a person, both monetary and temporary. In conditions when progress in economic development directly depends on the accumulated human capital, the role of man in the economic environment is very great.

The most expedient is economic growth based on a qualitative improvement in production, living conditions and the welfare of the country. All this can be achieved using human capital as the main factor. Each person should be interested in the constant accumulation of human capital as its owner. The motives for the accumulation of human capital are human needs, which are the main incentives for his behavior in modern market conditions.

The accumulation of human capital, as a rule, is prolonged in time, which should be taken into account when determining the rate of economic development. Therefore, an increase in the level of income should be used as the main motive for investing in human capital, both for the owners of human capital and for enterprises in the country. The growth of income in the long term as a result of an increase in human capital is many times higher than investment costs.

The specificity of the accumulation of human capital lies in the presentation by the market of new requirements for the quality of the labor force. When high requirements for education and professional experience appear on the labor market, then the accumulation of human capital is intensified, at the same time, this process is most pronounced among workers interested in their development.

Currently, significant funds are invested in human capital at 3 levels.

	Description	Characteristic
	State	On the state level in the form of education, health care, etc.
	Enterprise level	In the form of sending employees at the expense of the enterprise to paid trainings, seminars, conferences in order to improve their qualifications or the organization of in-house trainings and seminars.
		The third level represents investments in human capital directly by its owner in the form of additional education, self-improvement and acquisition of new professional skills. All these investments ultimately increase the special human capital of the employee.

Description

Characteristic

State

On the state level in the form of education, health care, etc.

Enterprise level

In the form of sending employees at the expense of the enterprise to paid trainings, seminars, conferences in order to improve their qualifications or the organization of in-house trainings and seminars.

The third level represents investments in human capital directly by its owner in the form of additional education, self-improvement and acquisition of new professional skills.

All these investments ultimately increase the special human capital of the employee.

Forms of human capital accumulation

The main form of accumulation of human capital is education, above all, higher education; in this area, knowledge, abilities, skills, and the ability to use them in labor activity have priority.

Modern wages can be represented in the form of two components: the first is the level of income that a person would receive without a higher education, and the second is the amount of income on investments made in obtaining education. Investment in education includes the direct costs of training and the alternative benefits of lost earnings while studying. According to this approach, the real value of education for the owner of human capital and for the economy and society as a whole is manifested in the fact that an employee with a higher level of education, and therefore, with a larger amount of human capital, has higher incomes.

Traditionally, it is believed that the income of people with higher education is approximately 1.3-1.5 times higher than the income of people with secondary specialized education, at the same time, a number of professions requiring higher education are paid below many blue-collar occupations. Therefore, this statement should not be taken as an absolute truth. However, it is necessary to take into account that the possession of a higher education provides a certain increase in earnings.

The presence of human capital affects not only the receipt of a higher income, but also increases the chances of getting a position in a more profitable job. The level and quality of education and employment have a pronounced relationship with each other. This trend is typical for both large cities and relatively small ones. The level of unemployed with a higher education is lower than that of those with a secondary or specialized secondary education.

Consequently, a higher level of education and, accordingly, a larger size of human capital strengthens the competitive position of workers in the labor market. It should be noted that this is the main competitive advantage in the labor market. The second on the list is professional experience.

The next most important form of human capital accumulation is the acquisition of practical production skills, vocational training.

The total investment in training and skills development is roughly comparable to investment in traditional education.

A distinction should be made between special and general vocational training.

Special vocational training and professional development is funded by the enterprise and empowers employees with the professional skills, abilities and knowledge that will be useful to them specifically in this enterprise. Therefore, the main income from vocational training comes directly from the company that financed the training. Thus, leaving the enterprise, the employee is unlikely to be able to use the human capital accumulated in the course of such training.
General vocational training will allow a person to acquire knowledge, skills and abilities in a specific field of activity and can be used in various enterprises.
What is Human Capital?

A person invests in general vocational training himself, but in the future, the costs of an increase in human capital will be offset by higher wages.

It should be noted that both of these approaches to the accumulation of human capital are popular in Russia.

Also, Russian enterprises that invest in human capital seek to organize such working conditions so that employees do not leave the enterprise, as this leads to a loss of invested funds. Most popular among Russian companies use corporate trainings, team competitions, practical group lessons of a narrow focus, related to the specifics of the work.

If earlier, the number of employees who improved their professional training on their own initiative was relatively small, today the trend has changed, the development of their own professional skills is in great demand. The obvious trend in the positive direction, however, is less than the desired level, since the main type of professional training that people undergo on their own initiative is professional development courses. Other types of general vocational training are less in demand.

In addition, it should be noted that public sector employees, government agencies state-owned companies improve their professional training significantly more often than employees commercial organizations... For a number of professions in the public sector, it is necessary to increase professional training every 1, 2 or 3 years.

In commercial enterprises, many employees do not feel the need to accumulate human capital through increased professional training, believing that training should take place at the expense of the employer and on his initiative. But private firms, especially small ones, are reluctant to invest in the development of their employees. Whereas in budgetary sphere there are special programs that require mandatory professional development. V in this case the state is often the investor of vocational training.

The third form of human capital accumulation is independent development, which consists in obtaining additional education, new professional skills, etc., by the direct owner.

This form is the least common, weak interest in self-improvement can be explained low level motivating the accumulation of own human capital among the bulk of the population. Often a person does not see the prospects for increasing wages if he undergoes advanced training. Therefore, it is necessary to stimulate employees in the form of an increase in their salaries, depending on the level of qualifications and professional knowledge.

Human capital accumulation with age

According to the general provisions of the theory of human capital, workers' salaries grow with age, because in their youth there are large investments in education, professional experience and training, then their intensity decreases, and workers begin to enjoy the fruits of their labor to form human capital.

With age, the accumulation of human capital continues through the formation of professional skills and the accumulation of experience, and at the same time the level of income increases.

According to the general trend in the formation and development of human capital, an employee reaches his maximum income in the region of 45-50 years. After this milestone, the overall level of income begins to decline, as factors of wear and tear of human capital come into play: knowledge and skills become obsolete, health problems appear, the level of perception decreases, passivity increases, etc.

The additional level of income due to the presence of higher education begins to decline from the age of 40-45; by the time of retirement, it ceases to have any effect on the level of income. This is due to the fact that the beginning of the accumulation of the bulk of human capital coincides with the receipt of higher education (22-25 years), after which a person enters the labor path and begins to supplement it with professional experience. Having started labor activity, a person constantly improves his professional level, increasing his human capital.

Beginning at the age of 30-35, a person has already accumulated a sufficient amount of knowledge and acquired the necessary professional skills, therefore, the most highly rated modern economy and employers. In the same period, the opposite situation occurs with workers who have not developed their human capital all this time. Their accumulated human capital in the form of education received and the funds invested in it have depreciated, so it is more difficult for them to find high-paying jobs. This is partly due to the lack of volitional qualities for self-development in professionally, and in part, the low quality of professional experience, which interferes with work in the changed conditions.

In the period from 30-35 years old to 40-45 years old, a person must develop his human capital through professional development, special training and high-quality growth, so that after 40-45 years professional experience provides a higher additional level of income than from having a higher education.

Thus, we can conclude:

The accumulation of human capital does not stop with higher education, certain professional skills, work experience, special skills, etc., but should continue through additional general and special professional development. The more educated, qualified and developed a specialist is, the more chances he has of getting a job with a high level of remuneration.

Among the features of the development and accumulation of human capital in Russia, it is necessary to note the positive tendencies towards an increase in the number of employees who increase their human capital by improving their qualifications and acquiring new professional skills. This is definitely a plus. At the same time, the general low culture among workers and employers in relation to refinancing human capital is a limiting condition for intensive economic growth. In modern conditions, human capital in Russia is the main factor in intensive economic growth. It is by increasing human capital that it is possible to increase the level of economic development, improve the sectors of the national economy, technological modernization of production, increase labor productivity and stimulate economic growth in the face of modern challenges faced by Russia.

Literature

Alaverdov A.R. Human resource management of the organization. - M .: Synergy, 2012.
Lukyanchikova T.L., Semenova E.M. Effective management of the human capital of an enterprise in the interests of its innovative development. // Management Accounting. - 2014. - No. 2. - S. 28-38.
Mau V.A. Human capital development. - M .: Delo, 2013.
Personnel Management. / ed. E. B. Kolbachev. - Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2014.

Founders of the theory of human capital

The theory of human capital was developed by supporters of free competition and pricing in Western political economy, American economists Theodore Schultz and Gary Becker. For the creation of the foundations of the theory of human capital, they were awarded the Nobel Prizes in Economics - Theodore Schultz in 1979, Gary Becker in 1992. Among the researchers who made the greatest contribution to the development of the theory of human capital are also M. Blaug, M. Grossman, J. Mintzer, M. Perlman, L. Throw, F. Welch, B. Chiswick, J. Kendrick, R. Solow, R. Lucas, C. Griliches, S. Fabrikant, I. Fisher, E. Denison, etc. economists, sociologists and historians. A Russian-born Simon (Semyon) Kuznets, who received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1971, made a significant contribution to the creation of the theory. Crete, S.A. Kurgan and others.

The concept of "human capital" is based on two independent theories:

He began his teaching career at the Iowa State College. Four years later, he headed the Department of Economic Sociology. Since 1943 and for nearly forty years, he is a professor of economics at the University of Chicago. The activity of the teacher was connected with active research work. In 1945 he prepared a collection of materials from the conference "Food for the World", in which special attention is paid to the factors of food supply, the structure and migration of the agricultural labor force, the professional qualifications of farmers, agricultural production technology and the direction of investment in farming. In Agriculture in an Unstable Economy (1945), he spoke out against the illiterate use of land, as it leads to soil erosion and other negative consequences for the agricultural economy.

In 1949-1967. T.-V. Schultz is a member of the board of directors of the US National Bureau of Economic Research, then - an economic consultant to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), several government departments and organizations.

Among his most famous works are “ Agricultural Production and Welfare "," Transforming Traditional Agriculture "(1964)," Investing in People: The Economy of Population Quality "(1981) and etc.

According to the scientist, human resources are similar, on the one hand, to natural resources, and on the other, to material capital. Immediately after birth, a person, like natural resources, has no effect. Only after appropriate "processing" does a person acquire the qualities of capital. That is, with the growth of costs for improving the quality of the labor force, labor as a primary factor is gradually transformed into human capital. T.-V. Schultz is convinced that, given the contribution of labor to output, human production capabilities are higher than all other forms of wealth combined. The peculiarity of this capital, according to the scientist, is that regardless of the sources of formation (own, public or private), its use is controlled by the owners themselves.

The microeconomic foundation of the theory of human capital was laid by G.-S. Becker.

HUMAN CAPITAL

In 1957 he defended his doctoral dissertation and became a professor.

He is an active supporter of the market economy. His legacy includes many works: "The Economic Theory of Discrimination" (1957), "Treatise on the Family" (1985), "Theory of Rational Expectations" (1988), "Human Capital" (1990), "Rational Expectations and the Effect of the Cost of Consumption" ( 1991), Fertility and the Economy (1992), Education, Labor, Labor Quality and the Economy (1992), and others.

The cross-cutting idea of the scientist's works is that, when making decisions in his daily life, a person is guided by economic reasoning, although he is not always aware of this. He argues that the market for ideas and motives functions according to the same laws as the market for goods: supply and demand, competition. This also applies to issues such as weddings, starting a family, training, choosing a profession. In his opinion, many psychological phenomena lend themselves to economic assessment and measurement, such as, for example, satisfaction-dissatisfaction with the material situation, the manifestation of envy, altruism, egoism, etc.

Opponents of G.-S. Becker argue that by focusing on economic calculations, he downplays the importance of moral factors. However, the scientist has an answer to this: the moral values of different people are different, and it will take a long time until they become the same, if this is ever possible. A person with any morality and intellectual level seeks to obtain personal economic benefit.

The starting point for G.-S. Becker had the idea that when investing in training and education, students and their parents act rationally, taking into account all the benefits and costs. Like “ordinary” entrepreneurs, they compare the expected marginal rate of return on such investments with the return on alternative investments (interest on bank deposits, dividends on securities). Depending on what is more economically feasible, they decide whether to continue their education or stop it. Rate of return regulates the distribution of investment between different types and levels of education, as well as between the education system and the rest of the economy. High rates of return indicate underinvestment, low rates of overinvestment.

In the process of general training, the employee acquires knowledge and skills that increase the productivity of its recipient, regardless of the company for which he works (training to work on a personal computer).

According to G.-S. Becker, investments in education of citizens, in medical services, in particular in children, in social programs aimed at preserving, supporting, replenishing personnel, are tantamount to investing in the creation or acquisition of new equipment or technologies, which in the future will be returned with the same profits. So, according to his theory, support by entrepreneurs of schools and universities is not charity, but concern for the future of the state.

According to G.-S. Becker, general training is paid in some way by the workers themselves.

In an effort to improve their qualifications, they agree to lower wages during the period of study, and later receive income from general training. After all, if the training was financed by firms, then every time such workers are fired, they would get rid of their investments in them. Conversely, specialized training is paid for by firms, and they also receive income from it. In case of dismissal on the initiative of the company, the costs would be borne by the employees. As a result, the general human capital, as a rule, is generated by special “firms” (schools, colleges), and the special one is formed directly in the workplace.

Having studied the problems of human capital, G.-S. Becker became one of the founders of new sections of economic theory - the economics of discrimination, the economics of external management, the economics of crime, etc. He threw a "bridge" from economics to sociology, demography, forensics; was the first to introduce the principle of rational and optimal behavior in those industries where, as researchers previously believed, habits and irrationality prevailed.

The basics classical theory human capital was laid by the representatives of American economic thought T. Schultz, G. Becker and J. Mintser. It develops in the works of B. Vysbrod, L. Thurow, W. Bowen, M. Fischer, J. Vaisy. Later, a significant contribution to its development was made by M. Blaug, S. Bowles, Ian-Poret, E. Denison, J. Kendrick, R. Layard, J. Psakharopoulos, F. Welch, F. Machlup, B. Chiswick, L. Hansen et al.

As noted in the previous section, the theoretical schemes of the developers of the theory of human capital reflected the objective processes of the formation of a new economic basis of society, caused by the technological revolution of the 60-80s. XX century.

The approach of G. Becker and his school is characterized by the expansion of the scope of economic analysis not only by including such problems as education and special training, as well as the health of workers, but also by applying economic methods to such phenomena as marriage, divorce, decision-making on the birth of children, social and racial discrimination, criminal behavior, etc. Becker's methodology, called economic imperialism, conditioned his understanding of the essence and structure of human capital.

Within the framework of the theory of human capital, the distribution structure is explained personal income, age dynamics of earnings, discrimination in labor. It also analyzes the problems of ensuring rational employment and optimizing the labor market, first of all, highly qualified. If earlier the focus was on the efficient use of the existing potential of the labor force, then in the theory of human capital, more attention is paid to the problems of its formation, first of all, to the problem of the role of education and the accumulation of experience as sources of self-reproduction of capital in new economic conditions.

This is due to a new type of competition that has determined the nature of the competitive advantages of an economic entity of modern postindustrial society... A high level of instability in the external environment, due to the rapid pace of scientific and technological progress, life cycle goods, the new role of innovative goods as the basis of competitive status economic systems different levels - all this has led to attention to such characteristics of hired labor as creativity, dynamism, corporate loyalty, willingness to take risks, the ability to rationally calculate the effectiveness of investments in long-term development, etc.

The modern theory of human capital took shape in the late 50s - early 60s of the XX century. It continues the traditions of the neoclassical direction, but, as noted above, it includes in the analysis the theoretical premises and methods of critics of classical political economy, and also integrates social problems that traditionally dropped out of the analytical field of economics into economic analysis. "I AM I argue that the economic approach is unique in its power, because it is able to integrate many different forms of human behavior "- writes G. Becker. As he stated in his speech at the Nobel Prize:" The rational choice model provides the most promising framework available in at our disposal, for a unified approach of representatives of the social sciences to the study of the social world. "

The theory of investment in the human factor by T. Schultz G. Becker and J. Mintzer systematized the theoretical approaches of their predecessors and substantiated the need for such investments from the standpoint of microeconomic analysis.

G. Becker's views are presented in a large number of foreign and domestic publications, including the works of M. Armstrong, V.E. Bochkova, H. Braveman, L. Breslav, A.S. Gottlieb, A.I. Dobrynin, A.B. Doktorovich, S. A. Dyatlova, S. Zubov, R. I. Kapelyushnikova, A.V. Koritsky, B. Lisovik, I. Lomova, M. Storchevoy, V.V. Radaev, J. Fitents, A. Friedmen, E. D. Tsyrenova and others. Therefore, without retelling in detail the ideas of G. Becker, let us single out in his theory of human capital what seems to be the most significant.

In the works "Investments in human capital: a theoretical analysis", "Human capital: theoretical and empirical analysis", "Human capital and personal income distribution: an attempt at analysis" and "An economic approach to human behavior" G. Becker substantiates the methodological principles of his theory. The main methodological setting of his theory was the assertion that all economic behavior of a person is determined by his desire to maximize utility as a result of choosing from several alternatives.At the same time, investments are made for the sake of obtaining greater income in the future - from a higher level of earnings, greater satisfaction and a high appreciation of non-market species. activities Second methodological principle became the principle of stability of human behavior, and the third - the principle of market equilibrium. "Tied together assumptions about maximizing behavior, market equilibrium and preference stability, held firmly and unyieldingly, form the core of the economic approach as I see it," he writes [ibid.].

The three basic principles of G. Becker are based on the idea of rationality of human behavior, which was substantiated by representatives of classical political economy. G. Becker, developing the ideas of the neoclassicists, proceeds from the expediency and orientation of human behavior in time. His language for describing long-term oriented human choice is based on such concepts as “price”, “scarcity”, “opportunity cost”, etc. “Rarity and choice characterize any resources, in whatever form their distribution takes place - within the framework of decisions about which industries to tax, how to quickly expand the money supply, and whether to go to war), through the family (including choosing a spouse and planning family sizes, determining the frequency of church attendance and timing between sleep and wakefulness), or when organizing scientific research (including the distribution by scientists of their time and mental effort between various scientific problems) and so on ad infinitum. "

Consequently, according to Becker, people behave rationally, their activities are coordinated by markets (to substantiate this, the concepts of "implicit prices" and "implicit costs", such as lost earnings, are introduced.) Speaking about the stability of preferences, Becker, in his joint article with J. Stigler, has in view of the stability of preferences in relation to basic consumer goods, and not to market goods. The stability of human behavior is also determined by the rationality of people: if people's behavior has changed, the reasons lie in their reaction to the changed external conditions that limit the field of choice. Becker writes: “speech It can be about maximizing the utility or wealth function by anyone - family, firm, trade union or government agencies.In addition, the economic approach assumes the existence of markets, with unequal degree of efficiency of coordinating actions of different participants - individuals, firms and even entire nations - thus, that their behavior is becoming and self-consistent. It is also assumed that preferences do not change significantly over time and do not differ too much between rich and poor, or even among people belonging to different societies and cultures. "

In the most general terms, he defines human capital as an employee's stock of knowledge, skills, and motivations. Investments in it can be education, accumulation of industrial experience, health protection, geographical mobility, information retrieval. Consequently, in addition to knowledge and experience, the structure of education includes such components as motivation and readiness to spend energy on work and education, determined by psychophysiological health. Arguing against theorists who ignored immaterial forms of capital, Becker writes: “The persistence of definitions linking economic science with material benefits, is explained by the unwillingness to subordinate certain types of human behavior to the "soulless" economic calculation". Becker writes: “Human capital, as defined by most economists, consists of the acquired knowledge, skills, motivation and energy that human beings are endowed with and that can be used over a period of time to produce goods and services.” “It is a form of capital because it is the source of future earnings, or future gratification, or both. He is human because he is part of person ".

G. Becker structures the costs of human capital production. First, he divides them into direct and conjugate. The first includes the costs of education and training of workers. In turn, they include:

Direct costs include:

tuition fees and other expenses for education, as well as expenses of changing the place of residence and work in connection with the received or received education;
lost earnings, which is an element of opportunity costs, since getting an education, changing a place of residence and work are associated with the loss of other, alternative income;
moral damage, since getting an education is difficult and even unpleasant, job search tires and depletes the nervous system, and migration leads to the need for adaptation.

Associated costs are the costs of medical care and childcare, their upbringing, i.e. all costs associated with the reproduction of material carriers of human capital. Direct investment in human capital increases its volume; conjugate - extend the life of its "operation", improve the conditions for its functioning, increase the impact, reducing morbidity and mortality.

The productive qualities and characteristics of an employee, on the one hand, require significant costs, on the other, like physical capital, they provide their owner with a higher income: “In recent decades, the idea that capital consists of only physical assets has been undermined. a more comprehensive view, according to which capital is any asset, physical or human, that has the ability to generate a stream of future income. "

Students (or their parents) in Becker's theory are entrepreneurs who rationally chose investment in education as the most profitable. They compare the costs and benefits, and also compare the expected marginal rate of return on investment in education with the return on alternative investment (percent bank deposits, dividends on securities etc.). The rates of return on investment in education increase with insufficient investment in the educational services market, while low rates indicate overinvestment.

Consequently, the calculated benefits regulate the level of investment in education in comparison with other sectors of the economy, and also distribute investment between different levels education. Becker estimated that the return on investment in higher education in the mid-20th century in the United States was 10-15%, one of the highest rates of return in the country. And the difference between the lifetime income of men with a college degree and the cost of getting it was nearly $ 205,000, forty times the direct cost of education.

Becker also shows the similarities and differences between human (intangible) and physical (material) capital. Of course, human capital does not exist without its carrier - a person, but its basis is the ability to create added value through knowledge and professional training. Therefore, in its economic essence capital is closer to the intangible resources of the production system.

The next difference is a significant variation in the ability of workers of the same educational level to create added value. Equal investments in physical capital, other things being equal, generate equal returns. The return on human labor is determined not only by investment in education and vocational training, but also by the personal qualities of a person. Another difference is the ability of human capital to grow to a certain level without additional financial investments. True, increasing the quality of his capital, the employee spends additional efforts of his own and uses such a resource as time. If the efforts spent brought additional earnings, then the value of human capital, measured by the cost of education, can be considered increasing.

But is it possible, in this case, to consider human capital as self-reproducing? If by human capital, following Becker, we understand the ability of an employee to create added value, then it is obvious that without additional investments (human efforts, time, lost alternative benefit) the quality of human capital does not increase, therefore, the basis for the growth of human capital is the labor of its bearer. Thus, self-reproduction of human capital is possible only due to additional costs its bearer is a person. Becker emphasizes that often expanded reproduction or an improvement in the quality of the human capital of an enterprise is carried out without additional investments by the owner of the enterprise: the employee can make these investments independently, counting on an increase in future income.

The common between the two forms of capital is the susceptibility of physical and human capital to physical and moral deterioration. In addition, as noted by A.V. Koritsky, analyzing Becker's approach to this problem, both require the diversion of significant funds to the detriment of current consumption, the level of economic development in the future depends on both, both types of investments give a long-term productive effect.

What is included in the structure of human capital costs? Becker includes education, industrial training, health care, migration, seeking information on prices and incomes, having children, and raising children. Acting as different forms of reproduction and distribution of human capital and performing different functions, the listed factors also have different validity periods, although for simplicity of calculation, Becker considers it possible to neglect the time difference in their validity periods.

The birth and upbringing of children ensures the intergenerational reproduction of human capital. Education and training in production increase its volume and create employee competencies, which, due to their scarcity or high demand in the labor market, allow their owner to receive the so-called labor rent, i.e. provide additional income... Migration and information retrieval provide the most profitable terms labor market transactions. Health protection increases the intensity and duration of the use of human capital. Becker also shows the inverse vector of the relationship between health and the quality of human capital: both the state of health of a person and the quality of medical care they receive will improve with an increase in their wage rate, so aging will cause deterioration in health while simultaneously increasing spending on medical services... But an increase in educational attainment will contribute to better health outcomes, even as the cost of health care is reduced.

In the structure of human capital, a number of Becker's followers include components that are directly or indirectly related to those identified by Becker himself. These include social origin, innate ability, and a genetic basis for health. Since in relation to each of these components in the second half of the 20th century, a more or less heated discussion was launched, we will not dwell on its details, analyzed in sufficient detail by Russian authors, but highlight two main results of this discussion:

a) the connection between the innate abilities of a person (if they are realized as a result of the obtained high-quality education and production) is a statistically verified regularity;
b) the level of income, in addition to education and industrial training, is significantly influenced by the duration of working hours, due to health and readiness with the loss of alternative benefits (rest and other occupations).

Thus, Becker proposes a structure of human capital, determined by the list of the employee's personal qualities that ensure his ability to create added value. But he also singled out other structural elements of human capital according to the criterion, which, in our opinion, can be called the criterion of the universality of this ability. Depending on the predominant source of investment in human capital, he identifies the general and specific training of the employee. General training is paid directly or indirectly by the workers themselves. In the first case, this is payment for training, lost benefits and moral damage. In the second case, this is consent to a lower wage during the period of study, which is compensated for by its subsequent increase. Entrepreneurs are reluctant to invest in general and vocational training, since they would lose their investment if they were fired. Enterprise-specific training is more readily paid by employers. When receiving such training, an employee also spends his strength, intellectual and other resources, but his maximum benefit is the implementation of the resulting increase in human capital from this employer. When switching to another employer, his costs may exceed the effort expended.

Consequently, investment in vocational training is for both investors not only a means of improving the quality of human capital, but also a mechanism for securing an employee in the workplace, a deterrent labor migration... As I.R. Kapelyushnikov, this distinction between general and specific resources later became the basis for the development of modern theory of the firm, and the concept of "special human capital" helps to understand why among employees with long-term work experience in one place the turnover is lower and why vacancies are filled in firms in mainly through internal promotions rather than through hiring in the external labor market.