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Introduction
Chapter 1 Main features of economic development
Economic growth rates and factors
Economic development problems
Structural shifts
Chapter 2. India as the largest country in the BRIC
2.1 Share of GDP in the world
2.2 Share in world trade
2.4 Science and technology
2.5 Dynamics of capital outflow and inflow
Conclusion
Bibliography
Appendix
Introduction
India is a developing agro-industrial country with developed industry, it is included in the group of countries with low per capita income. One of the largest countries in the world. India occupies 2.4% of the world's territory and accounts for 17.00% of the world's population. Population - 1.173 billion people. (2010) (Table 1) (Fig. 1), the second place in the world after China. The annual growth rates are 1.6% (Table 4), the number of deaths and births per 1000 inhabitants is 8.18 and 22.2, respectively (2006), the migration coefficient is 0.07. Life expectancy - 64 years (men - 63 years, women - 64 years). (2008) (Table 4) According to estimates, in the next 20 years the country's population will increase by 300 million people.
India is located in the south of Asia. In the northwest, it borders with Pakistan and Afghanistan; in the north - with China, Nepal and Bhutan; in the east - with Myanmar and Bangladesh. In the south, the Strait of Polk and the Gulf of Manar separate it from Sri Lanka, and the Republic of Maldives is located to the southwest. The sea border between India and Indonesia runs along the Great Channel between the islands of Big Nicobar and Sumatra.
The country possesses significant mineral resources, has large reserves of iron ore, bauxite, chromite, manganese ore, large deposits of copper and tungsten ores. In terms of production, the country is one of the 10 largest farms in the world.
In recent years, India has seen steady economic growth, influencing the current trends in the world markets for raw materials, primarily oil, and finished goods. India's economic dynamics and social progress are contributing to the growing role of the Asian region in the world economy and politics. A huge and constantly growing market, developing infrastructure, flexible regulatory environment, incentives, a stable state and a good economic outlook make India an attractive investment destination. The growing domestic demand in this country is considered as the main factors determining the investment attractiveness of India.
The relevance of the topic is determined by the growing role of India in the economy of the Asian region and in world politics in general. Of interest is the analysis of the most relevant aspects of economic policy, factors that ensure not only the rapid growth of the national economy, but also the creation of the basic prerequisites for its modernization and diversification.
The growing and deepening interest of Russia and India in the establishment of mutually beneficial political, trade and economic relations creates a significant relevance of the topic.
Relations between India and Russia are in the nature of a strategic partnership that serves as a solid foundation for bilateral interaction, both cultural and economic. The geopolitical interests of the two countries have a lot in common.
Fig. 1. Population of India and China, pers.
Chapter 1 Main features of economic development
1.1 Rates and factors of economic growth
The combination of basic development factors (natural and human resources, capital in monetary and material form, science and technology) forms the economic potential of the country, which in turn is the basis of its development and at the same time is the result of previous economic growth. The economic potential can be considered not only from the standpoint of production and the availability of resources necessary for its implementation, but also from the standpoint of their consumption. The closest analogue of the concept of economic potential in the system of economic categories is the productive forces. It should be borne in mind that they include both functioning and unused, but available resources that can be included in the country's economic turnover. The size of the economic potential, the structure and combination of the basic factors used in the production process largely predetermine the possibilities, direction and nature of economic growth. Today, in terms of economic potential, India ranks 4th in the world.
Economic growth in India is largely based on domestic factors and is focused mainly on its own needs and the domestic market, and the main sectors of the economy have a relatively wide endogenous development base (for example, agriculture, in principle, should provide the population with food)
In many respects, the determining factor for the development of India is the demographic factor and the state of the labor market. The initial characteristic of the demographic potential is the size of the population, which directly determines both the size of the labor force and the consumer potential of the country, as well as the possibilities for their further growth.
India is the second (after China) state in the world in terms of population, according to the World Bank (Fig. 1, table 1). The country has a fairly high rate of annual population growth - 1.6% (Table 4). This country has a large working-age and economically active population. The abundance and cheapness of labor can be attributed to positive factors. However, all residents of the country can be viewed from two points of view - as one of the types of resources, or as a huge mass that the state needs to maintain. In this sense, the consequences of the "demographic explosion" of the 50s-70s are deeply contradictory. In the socio-economic conditions of India, it led to a significant increase in the unused or inefficiently used share of labor resources, the “eating up” by the numerically growing population of a significant part of the increase in national income, aggravation of the food problem, complicating the choice for the state between economic and social imperatives of development. And although the peak of the “demographic explosion” has generally passed, the demographic problem has not yet lost its acuteness and complicates the solution of social and economic problems.
Only a large number of labor resources is not enough to implement stable economic growth, since if there are huge volumes of low-skilled labor, the latter can become a brake on economic development, i.e. labor potential is also determined by the qualitative characteristics of the labor force: its educational and professional qualification level, living conditions that affect labor productivity. For all these indicators, India has seen noticeable, albeit uneven across the country's regions, progress. Already in 2006. in India, according to UNESCO, public spending on education amounted to 4.1% (5% on average in the world), the adult literacy rate reached 60%, the proportion of students in the corresponding age groups: primary education - 95%, secondary - 52 %, higher - 10%.
The present and the future of the country's economy are highly educated people. The development of the workforce is at the center of all economic activity. In the XXI century. the most integrated factor in the economy is information technology services. All over the world there are Indian IT specialists, whose high level is a future investment in the economy, and the technologies that were created in India are able to fully integrate the economy and society.
India is the youngest nation in terms of the age of its citizens. This indicator is considered key for prospective economic development, since a young nation, multiplied by its education, is a fertile ground for the dynamic movement of society as a whole. The main reason India could soon become the second largest economy in the world is that many international companies already foresee a serious “demographic crisis” in China. Due to the policy of "One family - one child" there, there will soon be a shortage of young workers. By 2020, India will have 116 million working-age people of this age, and China - 94 million.
Thus, India's great asset is its workforce. This diversified society is able to provide the market with any advanced products. It provides a fertile environment for new ideas and experimentation in all areas.
There is such an aspect as the "brain drain" from India to the United States. Even with a large population, India cannot afford to lose some of its most skilled workforce. Today, India needs to strive to improve its place in the IEE system, which will be greatly facilitated by the retention of the best specialists.
The nature of economic growth is largely determined by the structure and volume of available natural resources. India is among the states whose agricultural resources are sufficient for self-sufficiency in food and agricultural raw materials for the manufacturing industry.
Land resources are the natural wealth of the country, since most of the soil is highly fertile. Livestock resources are significant. Forests cover 22% of India's area, but there is not enough timber for household needs. India's mineral resources are significant and varied. The main deposits are located in the north-east of the country, where the largest iron ore and coal basins, manganese ore deposits are located, which creates favorable conditions for the development of industries. The minerals of South India are diverse: bauxite, chromite, brown coal, graphite, mica, diamonds, gold. There is oil in the state of Gujarat on the continental shelf. At the same time, it must be emphasized that the country does not have a sufficient set of minerals required for modern industrial production. In addition, mineral reserves alone cannot provide the conditions for sustainable economic growth.
The economic potential is also indirectly expressed in a set of indicators characterizing the development of the industry as a whole, the manufacturing industry, including heavy and especially the production of machinery and equipment. According to these indicators, India occupies an important place among the developing countries.
New industries are highlighted based on the use and production of information technologies. Long-term investments in science and technology are starting to pay off, creating a powerful technological base for the modern Indian economy. While much of rural India remains in poverty, new, urban, dynamic information technology centers are emerging across the country. Indian cities such as Bangalore, Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay) and Hyderabad are becoming hubs for software and hardware exports, the forefront of India's modern economy.
It should be emphasized that the size of the country and its budget allows one to maneuver investments, “cut out” and direct the necessary funds to the right time on the development of key areas of science, technology and economy, taking into account their future, and not immediate impact. Thanks to this, India has made a significant step forward in the implementation of such nationwide science-intensive programs as geological exploration, nuclear, electronic, space and others.
Under the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, science took a special place in the composition of the productive forces, and the leading role in the economic potential passed to its scientific and technical component. India stands out among developing countries in terms of the number of higher education institutions and the number of students. The country has such a training base that it renders significant assistance to other developing countries in personnel training. At the same time, the training of technical personnel in the Indian higher education system is still underrepresented.
An important role in the formation of scientific and technical potential belongs to the financing of R&D, and one of the indicators of the financial support of science is the share of R&D expenditures in GDP. In terms of these indicators, already at the end of the 70s, India approached the level of some developed countries. With financial leverage, India is seeking to shift research into areas more closely related to economic development. Half of the funds are allocated by the government to finance R&D in the defense, space and nuclear industries - directly to scientific research and to the introduction of developments in industry.
The increase in growth rates is explained by significant industrialization processes, overcoming the backwardness of the socio-economic structure of the economy, and the strengthening of national capital.
1.2 Problems of economic development
The country is slowly declining poverty and unemployment. 26% of the population is below the poverty line. The income of the population does not allow them to purchase a minimum of food. Industrial consumer goods are bought by the wealthy elite (5-10%) of the population.
As a result, a dualistic, dualistic market remains in the country. The stagnation of effective demand for basic necessities, which the majority of the population needs, is combined with an increase in effective demand for durable goods.
Among the problems of the Indian economy, it should be noted, in particular, the following:
strong dependence on imports of crude oil (due to imports, the country satisfies 77% of the needs for this product). Proven reserves of coking coal are very limited, the quality of thermal coal is poor, the country is experiencing chronic power outages and shortages;
due to the fact that almost 26% of the country's inhabitants live below the poverty line, the state is forced to spend significant funds to ensure their minimum subsistence level through various kinds of benefits, grants, subsidies;
state-owned corporations continue to dominate the main sectors of the economy, which negatively affects the development of competition and other market mechanisms;
"overregulated" and bureaucratized administrative decision-making processes, widespread corruption;
underdeveloped infrastructure;
numerous problems of agriculture, which is associated with the life of a huge number of Indians, incl. a small number of modern farms, low mechanization of agricultural production, a lack of storage facilities for agricultural products, a large number of intermediary structures, the dependence of agriculture on weather conditions, etc .;
high unemployment rate, which ranges from 9% in rural areas to 12% in cities.
In 2008. India's GDP exceeded the $ 1 trillion mark (tab.), Thanks to which the country entered the club of trillionaire states, becoming its twelfth member. The strengthening of the national currency of India, the rupee, against the dollar, helped to overcome the barrier. However, analysts emphasize that the country's economy is overheated, and such a rapid strengthening of the rupee will play against Indian exporters. In India, however, they are confident in continued economic growth.
Many experts note, comparing the republic with China (a giant in the production of goods), that "if India plays its cards right, it can become the world leader in the production of services."
Addressing issues related to improving the environmental and material living conditions of Indian citizens, raising the level of education of the country's population, resolving social conflicts, legal regulation in the field of labor migration, raising the standard of living of all citizens in general, will help India in the near future to become the biggest surprise in the world economy. If the country continues to follow the course of economic reforms, then in the near future it will be among the fastest growing economies in the world and become one of the main centers of foreign investment. It is likely that simultaneously with the economic success of India, its global political influence will also grow, having a beneficial effect on the development of the world economy as a whole.
1.3 Structural changes
India has undergone significant changes in recent decades. They were driven by the service sector, whose share rose from 40% in 1990 to 50% in 2004. In terms of the share of services in GDP, India surpasses the level of low-income countries per capita. The speed, quality and complexity of the type of services offered for sale are increasing and strive to meet international standards.
Trade, hotel business, transport and communications developed at the fastest pace. The government views the information and computer technology sector as one of the leading sectors to strengthen the country's position in the global economy. India is fast becoming a major force in the information technology sector. The potential is increasingly being tapped by global software giants such as Microsoft, Hughes, and Computer Associates, which have made significant investments in India. A number of multinationals are taking advantage of the relative value advantage and highly skilled workforce available in India and have established service and order centers in India with the aim of meeting the needs of their customers around the world.
The capital market is developing rapidly. A vast financial and banking sector is contributing to the rapid growth of the Indian economy. The sector also houses a number of national and state financial institutions. They include foreign and institutional investors, investment funds, leasing companies, venture capital enterprises. In addition, the country has a developed stock market, including 23 stock exchanges, with over 9,000 registered companies, capitalization is 26% of GDP. Indian stock markets are rapidly transforming towards a market that is modern in terms of infrastructure in accordance with world practice, such as derivative trading in futures, special trading conditions for certain stocks, trading via the Internet, etc. Indian companies use external sources of finance on a large scale.
An extensive financial and banking sector supports India's fast growing economy. The country can be proud of a wide and developed banking network. The sector also houses a number of national and state financial institutions. They include foreign and institutional investors, investment funds, leasing companies. India has a developed stock market with over 20 stock exchanges with over 10,000 registered companies. Indian capital is moving rapidly towards a market that is modern in terms of real infrastructure, as well as in the best traditions of the international economy.
Chapter 2. India as the largest country in the BRIC
Despite the weak development of "pure" science, India is the world's leading center for some types of high-tech services, in particular software and business outsourcing, engineering. It has achieved this through an effective innovation support system. According to Goldman Sachs forecast, India should show the most impressive economic growth.
2.1 Share of GDP in the world
India is in 12th place in terms of GDP at current prices. It is about 1.210 billion US dollars (Table 7) (Fig. 2). FY09-2010 GDP Growth - about 1.3% (Table 2). When recalculated according to the UN methodology at “purchasing power parity”, India ranks fourth in terms of GDP in the world after the United States, China and Japan. India's GDP in terms of "purchasing power parity" is about 3.23 trillion. US dollars, the volume of GDP per capita for this indicator is about 3045 US dollars.
In the structure of GDP, the share of industrial and agricultural sectors continues to decline (21 and 22%, respectively), while the share of infrastructure and service sectors (57%) is constantly growing.
FY2009-2010 Annual Average Inflation amounted to 4.7%. (Table 2) External debt as of June 2009 amounted to USD 294.94 billion (Table 3). The level of gold and foreign exchange reserves exceeded USD 130 billion. Direct foreign investment in the Indian economy in 2008-2009. amounted to $ 34.9 billion (Table 5), portfolio - $ 235.4 billion (Table 5).
FY 2008-09 India's foreign trade turnover reached USD 324.9 billion (Table 6), exports - USD 125.2 billion, imports - USD 199.7 billion. (Table 6). The basis of Indian exports is agricultural and industrial raw materials, food and textile products, precious stones and products from them, machinery and equipment, software. The largest trading partners of India are the USA, China, Japan.
The main sectors of the economy have the following share in the production of GDP: agriculture - 31%, industry and construction - 28%, transport and communications - 7% and services - 34%. The national per capita income is about $ 300 per year. Only about 5% of the population has a per capita income above the American average; the size of the middle class is 250 million. At the same time, about 26% (2007) of the population live below the official poverty line.
The public sector plays an important role in the development of the national economy of India, providing production of 28% of GDP and 39% of industrial output. State-owned enterprises account for 100% of oil production and processing, 98% of coal, 94% of electricity generation, 80% of steel production. As mentioned above, the public sector occupies leading positions in such areas as the defense industry, nuclear energy, railway, aviation and maritime transport, communications. Programs are being implemented for partial privatization of the public sector through the sale of up to 49% of shares to financial and credit institutions, and later to private individuals.
The private sector predominates in agriculture, mechanical engineering, chemical, light, food and medical industries, construction, trade, and road transport. The private sector also includes Indian monopolies such as BIRLA, TATA, THAPAR, SINGHANIA and others. Their names are given by the surnames of their owners, as a rule, these are whole dynasties of businessmen. Some of the Indian monopolies are among the richest corporations in the world.
The largest monopoly is the TATA Group of Companies, with an annual capital turnover of $ 14 billion and a profit of $ 10.37 billion, or 2.4% of India's GDP. The Group accounts for 6% of the country's export potential. The interests of the Group are concentrated in such industries as: metallurgy, heavy engineering, chemistry, electricity, information and telecommunications, automotive, hotel business, production of tea, coffee, consumer goods, incl. - leather goods, investment, finance and economic consulting.
India's external debt to GDP ratio has improved significantly, with external debt at 20% in March 2008, one of the lowest among developing countries. The external debt itself currently exceeds $ 294 billion (early 2009). Economic development in different states is very uneven - in application both to sectors and industries, and regions and states of the country. If in 1980/81 FY. the highest indicator of the level of per capita income (2674 rupees in the state of Punjab) exceeded the lowest (917 rupees in the state of Bihar) 2.9 times, then in 1992/93 f.y. this gap was already 3.31 times (10,857 rupees in Punjab and 3280 rupees in Bihar). Regional uneven development serves as a breeding ground for various autonomist and separatist tendencies. In terms of gross national product, India's economy ranks 12th in the world ($ 1 trillion). India's economy is growing by 9% (2008-2009), which puts it in second place (after China) among the fastest growing countries in the world. Annual per capita income is less than $ 1000 (roughly 120 in the world), which is comparable to income in other poor countries.
Fig. 2. GDP in USD, 2009
The main reasons for this are the huge and growing population of India (about 1.2 billion) (Table 1), underdeveloped infrastructure, a huge gap between the rich and the poor, as well as the territorially uneven development of the economy. A third of Indians live below the poverty line.
2.2 Share in world trade
India's external trade turnover for 2008-2009 is -324.7 billion US dollars (Table 6). Exports are 125.2 billion US dollars, imports are 199.7. Largest exporters: United Arab Emirates, USA, Singapore, Great Britain, Netherlands, Germany (Table 6) (Figure 3)
Fig. 3 The largest importers: China, United Arab Emirates, USA, Saudi Arabia, Germany, Iran, Switzerland. (Table 6) (Fig. 4)
India has achieved impressive success in foreign economic activity. Exports are increasing annually by an average of 10-13%, while imports have stabilized. The rupee exchange rate is becoming more and more stable. The inflation growth rates are kept at the level of 6-8% (Table 2). India's foreign economic liberalization continues, and to a large extent the country has abandoned its protectionist policy, and has lifted administrative bans on the import of raw materials and equipment by private entrepreneurs. The maximum level of import tariffs in 15 years was reduced from 400% to 65%. With the aim of encouraging exports, the government has devalued the rupee by 24% and removed most of the restrictions on exchange. The rupee is now effectively a convertible currency. Foreign investments, which were previously limited in every possible way, began to be encouraged: for example, for foreign investors to buy blocks of shares in Indian enterprises, special permits are no longer required if the block of shares does not exceed 51%.
A protectionist mechanism has been put in place by the Government of India to provide adequate protection for the rights of domestic producers. Changes in the tariff policy were expressed, first of all, in the maximum increase in the rates of import customs duties on certain types of goods, the own production of which in India is of decisive importance for the country's economy.
A number of agricultural and horticultural products that were previously on the list for free import were subject to upper limits on customs duties. In relation to such "sensitive" goods, the relevant decrees of the Government of India were adopted in order to legislatively fix the increase in customs tariff rates. It was also decided to amend the Forcing Trade Act of 1992 in order to give legal force to government actions as temporary, necessary and safeguard against the consequences of the abolition of quantitative restrictions.
Increased import duties have been introduced to protect domestic producers:
on imports of agricultural products such as wheat, rice, corn, other grains, copra and coconut oil, classified as government-traded goods. Similarly, imports of petroleum products, including gasoline, diesel fuel and aviation fuel, classified as government-traded goods, are carried out. Urea (urea) is also imported through the state trade mechanism;
the import of all goods is subject to such existing normative legal acts of internal regulation as the Law on Counterfeiting of Food Products, the Regulation on Meat Products, the Procedure for Control over the Collection, Processing and Waste of Tea;
the import of textile materials using unauthorized dyes is prohibited;
the import of foreign alcoholic beverages, prepared food and tea is subject to existing internal health and hygiene regulations.
India's share in world trade is less than 1%. The government has set the goal of achieving at least 20% annual growth in exports.
To implement the tasks of increasing the country's share in world trade, attention is being paid to measures and means of promoting exports, and the search for new mechanisms to promote its expansion is accelerating.
In the export-import policy of India (EIP) for 2002-2008. it is planned to create such conditions for the development of exports, which would make it possible to achieve the goal set in the 10th five-year plan and the Medium-Term Export Strategy - to increase by 2008 the share of India in world trade from 0.7% to 1%. The volume of exports by 2009 increased from 46 to more than 125 billion US dollars (Table 6).
Export-import policy for 2002-2008 consolidates and develops previously adopted decisions aimed at developing exports and increasing the competitiveness of Indian goods by creating favorable conditions for exporters that would not contradict the WTO rules and would not be discriminatory towards local producers focused on the domestic market.
The new proposals formulated in the export-import policy for 2002-2008 are structurally combined into six main areas:
Measures for the further development of Special Economic Zones
Measures to increase exports in such sectors of the economy as agriculture, handicrafts, small and medium-sized businesses, leather, textile and jewelry industries;
Measures to develop the export of high-tech products;
Measures to increase the volume and expand the geography of exports;
Measures to reduce transaction costs and simplify the regulation of export-import transactions;
Measures to further develop export promotion schemes.
India is a major exporter of labor. There is a large outflow of skilled workers and student youth from the country. Natives of India hold a prominent place among researchers and engineers in the United States. Emigrants provide a large inflow of funds - over $ 50 billion. in 2007.
In general, India's position in the structure of international economic relations reflects the increasing influence of external factors, their increasing importance in the development of the country, which reflects the general trend towards the internationalization of economic life.
2.3 Share in world production
For several years after gaining independence, India depended on help from other countries for food shortages. Over the past 40 years, food production has grown steadily, mainly due to the expansion of irrigation land and the widespread use of high-quality, high-yield seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. India has a huge supply of grains and is also an exporter of grains. Revenues, especially tea and coffee, are the main exports. India is the largest tea producer in the world, with an annual production of about 470 million tons, 200 million tons of which are exported. India also contains about 30% of the world spice market, with exports of about 120,000 tons per year. In order to strengthen the sector, the formation of infrastructure for the processing, transportation and storage of grain and food, the status of infrastructure was granted, which implies exemption from taxes.
After a decade of reforms, the manufacturing sector is preparing to meet the needs of the new millennium. Investments in Indian companies reached record levels by 1994, and many multinationals decided to open stores in India to take advantage of the improved financial climate. With the aim of further growth in the industrial manufacturing sector, foreign direct investment was allowed on an automatic route in almost all industries with some restrictions. Structural reforms were undertaken under the excise regime with the aim of introducing a flat rate and simplifying procedures and rules. Companies in the manufacturing sector united in their core competencies, forging links with foreign companies in order to acquire new technologies, management expertise and access to foreign markets. The advantageously low costs associated with manufacturing in India have established India as an attractive manufacturing sector and a source for global markets.
Light industry is a traditional branch of the Indian economy. India has a strong textile base based on natural fabrics. In the production of cotton fabrics, India is one of the leading countries in the world, and in the production of jute products (technical, packaging, furniture fabrics, carpets) it takes first place. The largest centers of the cotton industry are Bombay and Ahmedabad, and the jute industry is Calcutta.
The textile industry has a significant place in both the Indian economy and the international economy. Its contribution to the Indian economy is manifested in the production of manufactured goods, employment of the population and the receipt of foreign exchange. The Indian textile industry has advantages over other major textile producing countries in terms of the cost of raw materials and labor costs in the production of various types of textile products.
Excellent management, high productivity and experience have brought an increasing number of global car manufacturers to India. Suzuki and Hyundai have established an export center for their world renowned vehicles in India.
In world production, despite the huge basic shifts in the Indian economy, the country stands out for its raw materials and basic industries. In the early 2000s, India accounted for 60% of world production of mica, 30 peanuts, 28%, 21% rice, 11% milk and sugar, 10% wheat. India is one of the largest producers of rubber and coffee.
Labor productivity remains low. In terms of overall competitiveness, the Indian economy ranks 34th in the world. Today, Indian companies successfully compete in international markets in pharmaceuticals, steel, cement and automotive parts.
For decades India
Republic of Cape VerdeThe territory is the Cape Verde archipelago, located at a distance of 620 km from the West African coast with a total area of 4033 sq. km. The relief is mountainous. The climate is tropical.
State in the Caribbean to the east of Puerto Rico in the Lesser Antilles archipelago, consists of two closely spaced islands with a total area of 442 sq. km.
Territory. Population. State structure. Story. Economy. Monetary sphere. Social politics. Economy. The science. Economic relations with Russia.
Externally study economic activity RF in the context of the development of the world economy. Study of the dynamics of exports (fuel and energy products, timber, pulp and paper products) and imports (production machinery and equipment) in Russia.
The main features of developing countries. general characteristics the economic situation of developing countries. The role of developing countries in the global economy.
The Republic of India is located in South Asia on the Indian subcontinent, washed by the waters of the Indian Oceans in most of the Indo-Gangetic lowland. In addition to the mainland, its territory includes the Lakkadiv islands in the Arabian Sea, as well as the Andaman and Nicobar islands in the Bay of Bengal ...
Territory: archipelago in the Persian Gulf near the coast Saudi Arabia total area of 665 sq. km, consists of 35 islands, partly of artificial origin.
A group of 138 islands in the Atlantic Ocean east of the United States with a total area of 58.8 square meters. km, overseas territory of Great Britain.
- Geographical and geopolitical characteristics of India at the present stage.
Characteristics of the population, assessment of labor resources.
Natural resource potential of the country.
General characteristics of the country's economy (analysis of industry and agriculture: structure, achievements).
Foreign economic relations.
Conclusion.
- Geographical and geopolitical characteristics of India at the present stage.
The Indian subcontinent is home to the Indus Valley Civilization and other ancient civilizations. Throughout most of its history, India has acted as the center of important trade routes and was famous for its wealth and high culture.
In the period from the beginning of the 18th to the middle of the 20th century, India was gradually colonized by the British Empire. Having gained independence in 1947, the country has made great strides in economic and military development. By the end of the 20th century, India's economy had become one of the fastest growing in the world.
In terms of the nominal volume of gross domestic product, India ranks 12th in the world, and in terms of GDP, recalculated in purchasing power parity, it ranks fourth. The high level of poverty and illiteracy of the population continues to be an urgent problem.
Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent, which had a great influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.
State structure of India.
Federal Republic. The head of state is the president. Elected by a college of voters made up of both houses of parliament and state legislatures for a 5-year term. Legislature- a bicameral parliament. Consists of the Council of States (no more than 250 seats, of which 12 are appointed by the president, the rest are elected from the legislatures of the states and territories) and the People's Assembly (545 seats, 543 are elected by popular vote, 2 are appointed by the president). Executive power is exercised by the government headed by the prime minister, who is appointed by the president.Administrative divisions of India .
28 states and 7 union territories of central subordination.Modern India is a dynamically developing country with a strong industrial base and developed agriculture, significant labor resources and a diverse mineral and raw material base, a growing scientific and technical potential and a rapidly developing service sector, including information technology, telecommunications, financial and banking, transport, construction, outsourcing of business processes.
The policy of the government of the country is aimed at achieving India's status as one of the leading economic powers in the world over the next 20 years. India's gross domestic product has doubled over the past five years and grew at a CAGR of 8.5%. Despite the global financial and economic crisis, the Indian economy in 2009/10 fin. grew by 7.2%, and in the coming years the Indian government expects to reach an annual growth rate of 9-10%.
The country's development strategy, which was presented to the Indian society in the form of the "India: Vision - 2020" program, defines the strategic directions for the development of the Indian economy in the medium and long term. Defined as follows: energy (including nuclear), information technology cluster (the core of the emerging "new technological order"), "strategic industries" (defense industry, aerospace sector, aircraft construction, electronics of the highest degree of complexity, nuclear industry, telecommunications and etc.). The development of these areas of the economy is India's top priority.
The Indian Ocean is gaining more and more importance for India. The country's sea border stretches for almost 6 thousand km. The bulk of energy is transported by sea. The Indian Ocean region, which is almost 2 billion people, represents a huge potential market, a source of raw materials and cheap labor. Therefore, at the end of the last century, India, South Africa and Australia began to create Association for Regional Cooperation of Indian Ocean Coastal States(ARS PGIO). Now it includes 15 states - from South Africa in the West to Australia in the East. Analysts at the Institute for Strategic Studies under the Indian Ministry of Defense believe that the number of countries belonging to the Association could increase to 35, and taking into account the countries dependent on ocean transport routes, to 52, including the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.
Delhi's long-term interest - this is the strengthening of stability and security in the entire Asian region, the settlement of existing territorial problems by political, not military means, so that the spirit of good-neighborliness and mutual understanding prevails in Asia. Respect for territorial integrity, non-interference in interethnic disputes is the key to the successful development of all multi-ethnic countries of South Asia and Central Asian countries.
One of the important directions in both domestic and foreign policy of India is fight against transnational terrorism. And in this important matter, she successfully cooperates with the Russian Federation. Thus, back in 1994, Russia and India specially adopted the Moscow Declaration on the Protection of the Interests of Multinational States, which became the methodological basis for interaction between the two countries in preventing conflicts in the South Asian regions. Moscow and New Delhi are constant in their assessments of cross-border terrorism: whether it is the fight against bandit formations in Chechnya or in the region of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, terrorism and drugs emanating from Afghanistan and threatening potential destabilization of the Central Asian states and the southern borders of Russia, in particular in the North Caucasus ...
Indian diplomats are making a lot of efforts to develop good-neighborliness with China, although there is another point of view in Delhi: becoming a colossus, China will inevitably show its “colossus nature” - the desire for unlimited expansion, one of whose victims India may become.
- Characteristics of the population, assessment of labor resources.
The national languages are Hindi and English, the states have official national languages. Of the 18 languages recognized as state, 13 belong to Indo-Aryan, 4 to Dravidian language groups and 1 to Tibetan. The most widely spoken language is Hindi: it is spoken by more than 300 million people. Hindi is recognized as the official language in the northern states of India. Other Indo-Aryan languages: Bengali, Gujarati, Assami, Kashmiri, Konkani, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi. Urdu is the main language of Indian Muslims in the North and South of India. In the regions of Gujarat bordering Pakistan, the Sindhi language is widespread (emigrants who fled from the Pakistani province of Punjab after the partition of the country in 1947 live here). A quarter of India's population speaks Dravidian languages. The languages of this group are spoken mainly in southern India, partly in the central part of the country, in eastern Bihar. Four Dravidian languages are recognized as official languages: Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Teluju. Manipuri and other Tibetan languages are spoken in northeastern India. The languages of international communication are Hindi and English. 74.3% of India's population lives in villages and only 25.7% are urban dwellers. India is one of the most populous countries. The average density of its population, which was at the beginning of the 20th century. about 70 people by 1 km 2, by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to 319.3 people. by 1 km 2.
In terms of population (1.2 billion people), India is the second largest in the world after China, almost 70% of Indians live in rural areas, although over the past decades, migration to large cities has led to a sharp increase in urban population. The largest cities in India are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. In terms of cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity, India ranks second in the world after the African continent. The average literacy rate in India is 64.8% (53.7% for women and 75.3% for men).The highest literacy rate is found in Kerala (91%) and the lowest in Bihar (47%). The sex composition of the population is characterized by the excess of the number of men over the number of women. The male population is 51.5% and the female population is 48.5%. The national average male to female ratio is 944 women to 1,000 men. The median age of the Indian population is 24.9 years, and the annual population growth rate is 1.38%; 22.01 children are born per 1,000 people a year. According to the 2001 census, children under 14 years old accounted for 40.2% of the population, persons aged 15-59 years - 54.4%, 60 years and older - 5.4%. Natural population growth was 2.3%.
India is home to two large language families: Indo-Aryan (74% of the population) and Dravidian (24% of the population). Other languages spoken in India are descended from the Austro-Asian and Tibeto-Burmese linguistic family. Hindi, the most widely spoken language in India, is the official language of the Indian government. English, which is widely used in business and administration, has the status of an “auxiliary official language”; it also plays a large role in education, especially in secondary and higher education. India's constitution defines 21 official languages that are spoken by a significant portion of the population or have a classical status. There are 1,652 dialects in India.
In many ways, the determining factors for the development of India are demographic factor and state of human resources... The initial characteristic of the demographic potential is the size of the population, which directly determines both the size of labor resources and the consumption potential of the country, as well as the possibilities for their further growth.
India is the second (after China) state in the world in terms of population (according to the World Bank - 1080 million people, 2004). The country has a fairly high rate of annual population growth (1.6%, 2004). And although the peak of the "demographic explosion" has generally passed, the demographic problem has not yet lost its acuteness. India is the most multinational country in the world. It is inhabited by representatives of several hundred nations, nationalities and tribal groups at different levels of social economic development and speaking different languages. The level of urbanization is quite low - 27%, but the number of big cities and "millionaire cities" is constantly increasing; in terms of the absolute number of urban dwellers (250 million people), India ranks second in the world. However, over 60% of India's population lives in crowded villages.
The significant population, while providing the basis for large-scale farming and the deployment of diversified production, at the same time has a far from unambiguous effect on India's economic growth. The consequences of the "demographic explosion" of the 1950s and 1970s are also deeply contradictory. In the socio-economic conditions of India, it led to a significant increase in the unused or ineffectively used share of labor resources, "consuming" by the numerically growing population of a significant part of the increase in national income, aggravation of the food problem, and complication for the state of the choice between economic and social imperatives of development.
The share of the working-age population in India, where, under the influence of the "demographic explosion", the process of rejuvenation of its age structure was taking place, barely exceeds half of all inhabitants. At the same time, the rate of increase in the number of unemployed remains quite stable: an average of 4.8% annually for the period 1993-2003. Surplus labor resources, significant contingents of ineffective and underemployed people seriously complicate the solution of economic and social problems. Since new generations continue to approach the threshold of labor activity, the increase in the able-bodied and economically active population occurs at a relatively high rate - about 2.1% annually, exceeding the population growth (1.6%).
Along with the number of people employed in economic activity, labor potential is also determined by the qualitative characteristics of the labor force: its educational and professional qualification level, living conditions that affect labor productivity. For all these indicators in India, there was a noticeable, albeit uneven across the regions of the country, progress, and the correlation of the qualitative characteristics of the labor force is quite clearly traced, not only with the level of economic development achieved, but also with the historical period from which the processes of socio-economic restructuring began to acquire known acceleration. Despite a significant increase in the number of students in secondary and higher education in the country, a decrease in the proportion of working adolescents and old people, the proportion of the economically active population began to increase, since generations, whose numbers had already been influenced by the "population explosion", began to join the labor force. The ratio of the number of dependents to the total number of the economically active population, which grew rapidly in the first post-war decades, has stabilized or began to decrease since the 1980s, reaching a value of 0.6. India is still on the way to solving the problems of raising the level of education and training of qualified personnel. According to UNESCO, in 2003 in India government spending education accounted for 4.1% (against 5.0% on average in the world), the literacy rate among the adult population reached almost 60%, the proportion of students in the corresponding age groups: primary education 95%, secondary 52%, higher 10%
It is important to note that, according to 2001 data, more than 70% of the population lives in rural areas. Despite the presence of such large cities as Bombay (16.4 million people), Calcutta (13.2 million people), the capital of the country Delhi (12.8 million people), Madras (6.4 million people). people) and another 30 cities with a population of more than one million people, the level of urbanization in India (due to the huge number of inhabitants in general) does not exceed 30%.
However, it is obvious that such a large population can be considered not only as consumers of the results of economic activity, but also as a labor force. However, only a large number of labor resources is not enough to implement stable economic growth, since if there is a huge amount of low-skilled labor force, the latter can become a brake on economic development. An important factor in analyzing the demographic situation in the country is the quality of labor resources. In the case of India, to take this factor into account, we used the literacy rate of the population, since in relation to the country under study, in our opinion, this indicator already allows us to draw the main and most important conclusion on the issue of the demographic potential of the state in question.
Thus, at the moment, India is inhabited by a huge number of people. All residents of the country can be viewed from two points of view: as one of the types of resources, or as a huge mass that the state needs to maintain. Today the second position is more true. The Indian government is trying to use the country's enormous human resources, however, while there are no significant achievements in this area, the corresponding activities are carried out with insufficient speed and efficiency.
- Natural resource potential of the country.
The climate is predominantly tropical, in the north it is tropical monsoon. On the plains, the average January temperatures range from +15 to +27 ° С in the south. Average temperatures of the warmest month - May - are from +28 to +35 ° С. In the capital, the average temperature in January is +14, in July +31 ° С. In the Thar desert, 60-100 mm of rain falls annually, in the central regions of the Deccan plateau - 300-400 mm. The plateau ends with the Niljiri hills, where favorable conditions have developed for growing tea and coffee. In the Eastern Himalayas, the amount of precipitation increases to 3000-6000 mm. The wettest place on the planet is Cherrapunji on the Shillong plateau. There, up to 12,000 mm of precipitation falls annually. There are two monsoons: the southwestern one, bringing moderate to heavy rainfall for the vast majority of the country during June-September, and the northeastern one, lasting during October-February. In October-December there are frequent cyclones and storms (about 10 thousand people became victims of the cyclone in the state of Orissa on October 29, 1999). Located in the south of Asia, India is the seventh largest country in the world. For comparison, the area of the state is approximately 1/3 the area of the United States or 1/5 of the territory of Russia. The huge triangle of the Indian Peninsula juts out into the Indian Ocean. Water boundaries the countries are about 40% higher than the land ones. On the northern side of the triangle stretches the majestic mountain range of the Himalayas, where the highest peaks in the world are located. The picturesque Lake District of Jammu and Kashmir lies on the northwestern slopes of the Himalayas. Both India and Pakistan have territorial claims to this area. The foothills of the Himalayas are covered with forests, where tigers and leopards live.
To the south of the Himalayas are the wide Northern Plains. Here, in the fertile flood valleys of large rivers, most of the population of India lives. The western regions of the country are occupied by the waterless Thar Desert. Further south is the vast Deccan Plateau, which occupies most of Central and South India. This huge plateau contains both arable land and pastures. In addition, the bowels of the Deccan are rich in minerals. On both sides, the plateau is bordered by low mountain ranges of the Western and Eastern Ghats, which descend to the coastal plains. The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern ones, and the foothills of both are covered with dense tropical forests. In summer, monsoon winds blowing from the west bring heavy rains to India.
Despite the presence of rather large rivers, such as the Brahmaputra, Indus, Ganges, etc., their energy potential is low due to the flat nature of these rivers. India's electricity generation accounts for about 2% of world production. As of 2000 total area plowed land in the country accounted for more than 50% or 1/6 of the territory of Canada.
Naturally, India is one of the richest countries in the world. Even in colonial times it was called “the pearl of the British crown”. Indeed, the country's mineral resources are diverse and their reserves are significant. The main deposits are located in the north-east of the country. On the border between the states of Orisa and Bihar, there are high quality iron ore basins. The total geological reserves are over 19 billion tons, which is 1/4 of the world's total. India also has significant deposits of manganese ores, ranking third in the world in terms of reserves of this type of mineral raw materials. The country has the second global position in titanium mining. In addition, the country is an exporter of chromium and copper sheets. There are reserves of oil and natural gas, but the demand for these resources is met through imports.
Somewhat north of the iron ore are the main coal basins (in the states of Bihar, West Bengal), but these coals are of low quality. The explored reserves of coal in the country are about 23 billion tons (the total coal reserves in India, according to various sources, are estimated at 140 billion tons). In the north-east of the country, there is a concentration of minerals that is especially favorable for the development of heavy industries. The state of Bihar is the richest region in India in minerals.
The minerals of South India are diverse - bauxite, chromite, magnesite, brown coal, graphite, mica, diamonds, gold, monazite sands. Central India (eastern Madhya Pradesh) also has significant deposits of ferrous metals and coal. Radioactive thorium contained in monocyte sands can become an important source of energy. Uranium ores have been found in the state of Rajasthan.
Transport is significantly developed, India ranks fifth in the world in terms of traffic. The leading positions belong to the railway transport. India has its own air fleet, a notable maritime power, has a large merchant fleet, but 60% of the traffic is carried out by ships of other countries. There are eight major ports, the largest of which are Bombay and Kolkata. A noticeable role in the global agriculture. The largest livestock of cattle. The country ranks fifth in the world (first among developing ones) in terms of the number of sheep. India accounts for 20% of the world's rice production, 8.5% of the world's wheat harvest. The state ranks fourth in the world for the production of cotton, is a large producer of tea, and holds the third place in the world for the production of tobacco.
- General characteristics of the country's economy.
The development of India's industry is restrained by an insufficient raw material base, as well as a lack of financial resources, therefore, the structure of the country's industrial production is transforming rather slowly. The share of industries in it is as follows: textile industry - 17%; oil and gas and coal industry - 18%; ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy - 12%; mechanical engineering - 15%; food industry- 10%; pulp and paper industry - 5%, electrical industry - 5%.
In 2009. the production of the main types of industrial products was characterized by the following indicators (million tons): coal 340, oil 33, steel 34, cement 60, grain 183 million tons. Due to the still acute shortage of oil, India is forced to import significant volumes of crude oil and oil products annually.
Agriculture remains the main branch of the Indian economy, employing 2/3 of the country's working-age population. India holds the first place in the world for the production of tea, peanuts, sugar cane; the second is for the production of rice; the third - for the production of tobacco.
The share of transport in GDP is about 6%; road transport accounts for 80% of passenger and 50% of freight traffic in the country. In terms of the length of highways (more than 2 million km), India ranks fourth in the world. The length of railway lines is 68 thousand km, including 12 thousand km - electrified. More than 95% of India's foreign trade cargo turnover falls on sea transport.
The private sector plays a dominant role in development national economy providing 75% of GDP. It predominates in agriculture, light engineering, light, food and medical industries, construction, trade, and vehicles.
The public sector provides production of about a quarter of GDP and occupies leading positions in such basic industries as the defense industry, energy, railways, aviation, sea transport, communications, and, to a certain extent, metallurgy. It accounts for almost all production and refining of oil, coal, copper, lead, zinc, more than 60% of steel smelting, a significant part of the production of fertilizers, heavy engineering products, shipbuilding, aircraft and machine tools. More than 200 research institutes and laboratories are concentrated in the public sector, thanks to which India entered the circle of countries with high electronic technologies and the space industry. The country supplies the world market with telecommunications and meteorological communications, and is successfully implementing a long-term program for the development of the national nuclear power industry.
Since the beginning of the 90s, the industrial sector, as well as the entire economy of India, has undergone significant structural changes that ensured an increase in production volumes, modernization and the introduction of new technologies. The companies have established contacts with foreign partners to gain new technologies, marketing experience and access to foreign markets. The government took steps to help the industrial sector continue to develop. For example, taxes on companies and individuals were reduced, excise and customs duties were changed to revive the manufacturing sector, and banks were given greater freedom to determine the amount of tax on loans. The government also paid significant attention to attracting investment in fast-growing industries such as the production of computer programs, electronics industry, mechanical engineering, which, in general, ensured a high rate of development of the manufacturing industry.
The agro-industrial complex accounts for about 18.5% of India's GDP and 13% of India's exports. It employs 60-65% of the country's working-age population.
India ranks 1st in the world in terms of cattle (57% of the world's buffalo and 16% of cows), 2nd - goats and 3rd - sheep. In 2006/07 fin. The production of milk in the country amounted to 101 million tons, poultry meat - 2.7 million tons, eggs - 47.2 billion pieces. In connection with the threat of bird flu, the government of India has taken a number of protective measures, in particular, the import of poultry meat and related products from potentially dangerous countries was prohibited, quarantine measures at customs were strengthened, a strategic stock of vaccines was prepared, etc.
India ranks 3rd in the world in the production of marine fish and 2nd in the catch of river fish (7 million tons in 2006/07). The country is the largest producer and exporter of tea (27% of world production, 13% of world exports). About 25% of the volume of domestic production is exported. In the world coffee production (varieties of robusta and arabica), India's share is 4%. The country is also one of the world's largest producers of natural rubber.
Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy
The current state of India's ferrous metallurgy is characterized by a fairly rapid growth in production and exports. Indian metallurgical enterprises have mastered the production of a wide range of rolled steel and products for further processing (sheet and profile products, steel billets, hot rolled steel coils, cold rolled sheet steel, construction steel, pipes, wire, electrical steel, tinplate). According to preliminary data, in 2006/07 fin. The production of rolled steel in India reached 48.1 million tons. India ranks 8th in the world in steel production, constantly increasing its volumes by 5-10% per year.
The basis of the industrial base of the ferrous metallurgy of India is made up of 7 steel plants with a full metallurgical cycle, the total capacity of which is more than 20 million tons of steel per year, incl. 5 metallurgical plants of the State Corporation Steel Authority of India Ltd. (SAIL) in Bokaro (4.6 Mt), Bhilai (4 Mt), Rourkel (2 Mt), Durgapur (2 Mt) and Burnpur (0.9 Mt) ...
India has large reserves of non-ferrous metals such as copper, tin, chromites, zinc, lead, nickel, bauxite. Copper reserves are estimated at 566 million tons, lead and zinc - 360 million tons, chromite - 135 million tons.
Textile industry.
India's textile industry accounts for 8% of GDP and 15% of the country's total exports. This industry, including the production of ready-to-wear, employs 35 million people, which is 18% of the total number of people employed in industry.
etc.................
- Geographical and geopolitical characteristics of India at the present stage.
- Characteristics of the population, assessment of labor resources.
- Natural resource potential of the country.
- General characteristics of the country's economy (analysis of industry and agriculture: structure, achievements).
- Foreign economic relations.
- Conclusion.
- Geographical and geopolitical characteristics of India at the present stage.
INDIA (in Hindi Bharat), the Republic of India, a state in South Asia, on the Indian subcontinent, includes the Laccadive, Andaman and Nicobar Islands. It shares borders with China, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri Lanka. The border with China in the Himalayas is unmarked. Area 3.3 million km2 (7th in the world). In terms of population, it ranks 2nd in the world (after China) - 1 billion 49.7 million people (2003). Part of the Commonwealth. Capital Delhi (New Delhi). Largest cities: Kolkata, Bombay, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Pune, Kanpur, Nagpur, Jaipur, Lucknow.
The Indian subcontinent is home to the Indus Valley Civilization and other ancient civilizations. Throughout most of its history, India has acted as the center of important trade routes and was famous for its wealth and high culture.
In the period from the beginning of the 18th to the middle of the 20th century, India was gradually colonized by the British Empire. Having gained independence in 1947, the country has made great strides in economic and military development. By the end of the 20th century, India's economy had become one of the fastest growing in the world.
In terms of the nominal volume of gross domestic product, India ranks 12th in the world, and in terms of GDP, recalculated in purchasing power parity, it ranks fourth. The high level of poverty and illiteracy of the population continues to be an urgent problem.
Religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism originated in India. In the first millennium AD, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and Islam also came to the Indian subcontinent, which had a great influence on the formation of the diverse culture of the region.
State structure of India.
Federal Republic. The head of state is the president. Elected by a college of voters made up of both houses of parliament and state legislatures for a 5-year term. The legislature is a bicameral parliament. Consists of the Council of States (no more than 250 seats, of which 12 are appointed by the president, the rest are elected from the legislatures of the states and territories) and the People's Assembly (545 seats, 543 are elected by popular vote, 2 are appointed by the president). Executive power is exercised by the government headed by the prime minister, who is appointed by the president.
Administrative divisions of India .
28 states and 7 union territories of central subordination.
Modern India is a dynamically developing country with a strong industrial base and developed agriculture, significant labor resources and a diverse mineral and raw material base, a growing scientific and technical potential and a rapidly developing service sector, including information technology, telecommunications, financial and banking, transport, construction, outsourcing of business processes.
The policy of the government of the country is aimed at achieving India's status as one of the leading economic powers in the world over the next 20 years. India's gross domestic product has doubled over the past five years and grew at a CAGR of 8.5%. Despite the global financial and economic crisis, the Indian economy in 2009/10 fin. grew by 7.2%, and in the coming years the Indian government expects to reach an annual growth rate of 9-10%.
The country's development strategy, which was presented to the Indian society in the form of the "India: Vision - 2020" program, defines the strategic directions for the development of the Indian economy in the medium and long term. Defined as follows: energy (including nuclear), information technology cluster (the core of the emerging "new technological order"), "strategic industries" (defense industry, aerospace sector, aircraft construction, electronics of the highest degree of complexity, nuclear industry, telecommunications and etc.). The development of these areas of the economy is India's top priority.
The Indian Ocean is gaining more and more importance for India. The country's sea border stretches for almost 6 thousand km. The bulk of energy is transported by sea. The Indian Ocean region, which is almost 2 billion people, represents a huge potential market, a source of raw materials and cheap labor. Therefore, at the end of the last century, India, South Africa and Australia began to create Association for Regional Cooperation of Indian Ocean Coastal States(ARS PGIO). Now it includes 15 states - from South Africa in the West to Australia in the East. Analysts at the Institute for Strategic Studies under the Indian Ministry of Defense believe that the number of countries belonging to the Association could increase to 35, and taking into account the countries dependent on ocean transport routes, to 52, including the former Soviet republics of Central Asia.
Delhi's long-term interest - this is the strengthening of stability and security in the entire Asian region, the settlement of existing territorial problems by political, not military means, so that the spirit of good-neighborliness and mutual understanding prevails in Asia. Respect for territorial integrity, non-interference in interethnic disputes is the key to the successful development of all multi-ethnic countries of South Asia and Central Asian countries.
One of the important directions in both domestic and foreign policy of India is fight against transnational terrorism. And in this important matter, she successfully cooperates with the Russian Federation. Thus, back in 1994, Russia and India specially adopted the Moscow Declaration on the Protection of the Interests of Multinational States, which became the methodological basis for interaction between the two countries in preventing conflicts in the South Asian regions. Moscow and New Delhi are constant in their assessments of cross-border terrorism: whether it is the fight against bandit formations in Chechnya or in the region of the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir, terrorism and drugs emanating from Afghanistan and threatening potential destabilization of the Central Asian states and the southern borders of Russia, in particular in the North Caucasus ...
Indian diplomats are making a lot of efforts to develop good-neighborliness with China, although there is another point of view in Delhi: becoming a colossus, China will inevitably show its “colossus nature” - the desire for unlimited expansion, one of whose victims India may become.
- Characteristics of the population, assessment of labor resources.
The largest peoples: Hindustans, Telugu, Marathi, Bengalis, Tamils, Gujarati, Kannara, Punjabis, etc. Hindus make up 80% of the population, Muslims 14%, Christians 2.4%, Sikhs 2%, Buddhists 0.7%. The Muslim population is concentrated in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, West Bengal, and the western part of Uttar Pradesh. The rest of the religious communities: Christians (mostly Catholics) are concentrated in the North-East of the country, in Bombay and in the South; Sikhs - in Punjab and adjacent regions, Buddhists - in Jammu and Kashmir, regions of the Himalayas.
The national languages are Hindi and English, the states have official national languages. Of the 18 languages recognized as state, 13 belong to Indo-Aryan, 4 to Dravidian language groups and 1 to Tibetan. The most widely spoken language is Hindi: it is spoken by more than 300 million people. Hindi is recognized as the official language in the northern states of India. Other Indo-Aryan languages: Bengali, Gujarati, Assami, Kashmiri, Konkani, Marathi, Nepali, Oriya, Punjabi. Urdu is the main language of Indian Muslims in the North and South of India. In the regions of Gujarat bordering Pakistan, the Sindhi language is widespread (emigrants who fled from the Pakistani province of Punjab after the partition of the country in 1947 live here). A quarter of India's population speaks Dravidian languages. The languages of this group are spoken mainly in southern India, partly in the central part of the country, in eastern Bihar. Four Dravidian languages are recognized as official languages: Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Teluju. Manipuri and other Tibetan languages are spoken in northeastern India. The languages of international communication are Hindi and English. 74.3% of India's population lives in villages and only 25.7% are urban dwellers. India is one of the most populous countries. The average density of its population, which was at the beginning of the 20th century. about 70 people by 1 km 2, by the beginning of the 21st century. amounted to 319.3 people. by 1 km 2.
In terms of population (1.2 billion people), India is the second largest in the world after China, almost 70% of Indians live in rural areas, although over the past decades, migration to large cities has led to a sharp increase in urban population. The largest cities in India are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Kolkata), Chennai (formerly Madras), Bangalore, Hyderabad and Ahmedabad. In terms of cultural, linguistic and genetic diversity, India ranks second in the world after the African continent. The average literacy rate in India is 64.8% (53.7% for women and 75.3% for men).The highest literacy rate is found in Kerala (91%) and the lowest in Bihar (47%). The sex composition of the population is characterized by the excess of the number of men over the number of women. The male population is 51.5% and the female population is 48.5%. The national average male to female ratio is 944 women to 1,000 men. The median age of the Indian population is 24.9 years, and the annual population growth rate is 1.38%; 22.01 children are born per 1,000 people a year. According to the 2001 census, children under 14 years old accounted for 40.2% of the population, persons aged 15-59 years - 54.4%, 60 years and older - 5.4%. Natural population growth was 2.3%.
India is home to two large language families: Indo-Aryan (74% of the population) and Dravidian (24% of the population). Other languages spoken in India are descended from the Austro-Asian and Tibeto-Burmese linguistic family. Hindi, the most widely spoken language in India, is the official language of the Indian government. English, which is widely used in business and administration, has the status of an “auxiliary official language”; it also plays a large role in education, especially in secondary and higher education. India's constitution defines 21 official languages that are spoken by a significant portion of the population or have a classical status. There are 1,652 dialects in India.
In many ways, the determining factors for the development of India are demographic factor and state of human resources... The initial characteristic of the demographic potential is the size of the population, which directly determines both the size of labor resources and the consumption potential of the country, as well as the possibilities for their further growth.
India is the second (after China) state in the world in terms of population (according to the World Bank - 1080 million people, 2004). The country has a fairly high rate of annual population growth (1.6%, 2004). And although the peak of the "demographic explosion" has generally passed, the demographic problem has not yet lost its acuteness. India is the most multinational country in the world. Representatives of several hundred nations, nationalities and tribal groups live in it, who are at different stages of socio-economic development and speak different languages. The level of urbanization is quite low - 27%, but the number of big cities and "millionaire cities" is constantly increasing; in terms of the absolute number of urban dwellers (250 million people), India ranks second in the world. However, over 60% of India's population lives in crowded villages.
The significant population, while providing the basis for large-scale farming and the deployment of diversified production, at the same time has a far from unambiguous effect on India's economic growth. The consequences of the "demographic explosion" of the 1950s and 1970s are also deeply contradictory. In the socio-economic conditions of India, it led to a significant increase in the unused or ineffectively used share of labor resources, "consuming" by the numerically growing population of a significant part of the increase in national income, aggravation of the food problem, and complication for the state of the choice between economic and social imperatives of development.
The share of the working-age population in India, where, under the influence of the "demographic explosion", the process of rejuvenation of its age structure was taking place, barely exceeds half of all inhabitants. At the same time, the rate of increase in the number of unemployed remains quite stable: an average of 4.8% annually for the period 1993-2003. Surplus labor resources, significant contingents of ineffective and underemployed people seriously complicate the solution of economic and social problems. Since new generations continue to approach the threshold of labor activity, the increase in the able-bodied and economically active population occurs at a relatively high rate - about 2.1% annually, exceeding the population growth (1.6%).
Along with the number of people employed in economic activity, labor potential is also determined by the qualitative characteristics of the labor force: its educational and professional qualification level, living conditions that affect labor productivity. For all these indicators in India, there was a noticeable, albeit uneven across the regions of the country, progress, and the correlation of the qualitative characteristics of the labor force is quite clearly traced, not only with the level of economic development achieved, but also with the historical period from which the processes of socio-economic restructuring began to acquire known acceleration. Despite a significant increase in the number of students in secondary and higher education in the country, a decrease in the proportion of working adolescents and old people, the proportion of the economically active population began to increase, since generations, whose numbers had already been influenced by the "population explosion", began to join the labor force. The ratio of the number of dependents to the total number of the economically active population, which grew rapidly in the first post-war decades, has stabilized or began to decrease since the 1980s, reaching a value of 0.6. India is still on the way to solving the problems of raising the level of education and training of qualified personnel. According to UNESCO, in 2003, government spending on education in India amounted to 4.1% (against 5.0% on average in the world), the adult literacy rate reached almost 60%, the proportion of students in the corresponding age groups: primary education 95%, secondary 52%, higher 10%
Pace and factors economic growth
The combination of basic development factors (natural and human resources, capital in monetary and material form, science and technology) forms the economic potential of the country, which in turn is the basis of its development and at the same time is the result of previous economic growth. The economic potential can be considered not only from the standpoint of production and the availability of resources necessary for its implementation, but also from the standpoint of their consumption. The closest analogue of the concept of economic potential in the system economic categories are the productive forces. It should be borne in mind that they include both functioning and unused, but available resources that can be included in the country's economic turnover. The size of the economic potential, the structure and combination of the basic factors used in the production process largely predetermine the possibilities, direction and nature of economic growth. Today, in terms of economic potential, India ranks 4th in the world.
Economic growth in India is largely based on domestic factors and is focused mainly on its own needs and the domestic market, and the main sectors of the economy have a relatively wide endogenous development base (for example, agriculture, in principle, should provide the population with food)
In many respects, the determining factor for the development of India is the demographic factor and the state of the labor market. The initial characteristic of the demographic potential is the size of the population, which directly determines both the size of the labor force and the consumer potential of the country, as well as the possibilities for their further growth.
India is the second (after China) state in the world in terms of population, according to The World Bank... The country has a fairly high rate of annual population growth - 1.6%. This country has a large working-age and economically active population. The abundance and cheapness of labor can be attributed to positive factors. However, all residents of the country can be viewed from two points of view - as one of the types of resources, or as a huge mass that the state needs to maintain. In this sense, the consequences of the "demographic explosion" of the 50s-70s are deeply contradictory. In the socio-economic conditions of India, it led to a significant increase in the unused or inefficiently used share of labor resources, the “eating up” by the numerically growing population of a significant part of the increase in national income, aggravation of the food problem, complicating the choice for the state between economic and social imperatives of development. And although the peak of the "population explosion" has already passed in general, demographic problem has not yet lost its urgency and complicates the solution of social and economic problems.
Only a large number of labor resources is not enough to implement stable economic growth, since if there are huge volumes of low-skilled labor, the latter can become a brake on economic development, i.e. labor potential is also determined by the qualitative characteristics of the labor force: its educational and professional qualification level, living conditions that affect labor productivity. For all these indicators, India has seen noticeable, albeit uneven across the country's regions, progress. Already in 2006. in India, according to UNESCO, public spending on education amounted to 4.1% (5% on average in the world), the adult literacy rate reached 60%, the proportion of students in the corresponding age groups: primary education - 95%, secondary - 52 %, higher - 10%.
The present and the future of the country's economy are highly educated people. The development of the workforce is at the center of all economic activity. In the XXI century. the most integrated factor of the economy is services in the field information technologies... All over the world there are Indian IT specialists, whose high level is a future investment in the economy, and the technologies that were created in India are able to fully integrate the economy and society.
India is the youngest nation in terms of the age of its citizens. This indicator is considered key for prospective economic development, since a young nation, multiplied by its education, is a fertile ground for the dynamic movement of society as a whole. The main reason India could soon become the second largest economy in the world is that many international companies already foresee a serious “demographic crisis” in China. Due to the policy of "One family - one child" there, there will soon be a shortage of young workers. By 2020, India will have 116 million working-age people of this age, and China - 94 million.
Thus, India's great asset is its workforce. This diversified society is able to provide the market with any advanced products. It provides a fertile environment for new ideas and experimentation in all areas.
There is such an aspect as the "brain drain" from India to the United States. Even with a large population, India cannot afford to lose some of its most skilled workforce. Today, India needs to strive to improve its place in the IEE system, which will be greatly facilitated by the retention of the best specialists.
The nature of economic growth is largely determined by the structure and volume of available natural resources... India is among the states whose agricultural resources are sufficient for self-sufficiency in food and agricultural raw materials for the manufacturing industry.
Land resources are the natural wealth of the country, since most of the soil is highly fertile. Livestock resources are significant. Forests cover 22% of India's area, but there is not enough timber for household needs. India's mineral resources are significant and varied. The main deposits are located in the north-east of the country, where the largest iron ore and coal basins, manganese ore deposits are located, which creates favorable conditions for the development of industries. The minerals of South India are diverse: bauxite, chromite, brown coal, graphite, mica, diamonds, gold. There is oil in the state of Gujarat on the continental shelf. At the same time, it must be emphasized that the country does not have a sufficient set of minerals required for modern industrial production. In addition, mineral reserves alone cannot provide the conditions for sustainable economic growth.
The economic potential is also indirectly expressed in a set of indicators characterizing the development of the industry as a whole, the manufacturing industry, including heavy and especially the production of machinery and equipment. According to these indicators, India occupies an important place among the developing countries.
New industries are highlighted based on the use and production of information technologies. Long-term investments in science and technology are starting to pay off, creating a powerful technological base for the modern Indian economy. While much of rural India remains in poverty, new, urban, dynamic information technology centers are emerging across the country. Indian cities such as Bangalore, Chennai (Madras), Mumbai (Bombay) and Hyderabad are becoming hubs for software and hardware exports, the forefront of India's modern economy.
It should be emphasized that the size of the country and its budget allow one to maneuver investments, “cut out” and direct the necessary funds at the right time to the development of key sectors of science, technology and economy, taking into account their future, and not immediate returns. Thanks to this, India has made a significant step forward in the implementation of such nationwide science-intensive programs as geological exploration, nuclear, electronic, space and others.
Under the conditions of scientific and technological revolution, science took a special place in the composition of the productive forces, and the leading role in the economic potential passed to its scientific and technical component. Among developing countries, India stands out noticeably in terms of the number of higher educational institutions and by the number of students. The country has such a training base that it provides serious assistance to others in training. developing countries... At the same time, the training of technical personnel in the Indian higher education system is still underrepresented.
An important role in the formation of scientific and technical potential belongs to the financing of R&D, and one of the indicators of the financial support of science is the share of R&D expenditures in GDP. In terms of these indicators, already at the end of the 70s, India approached the level of some developed countries. With financial leverage, India is seeking to shift research into areas more closely related to economic development. Half of the funds are allocated by the government to finance R&D in the defense, space and nuclear industries - directly to scientific research and to the introduction of developments in industry.
The increase in growth rates is explained by significant industrialization processes, overcoming the backwardness of the socio-economic structure of the economy, and the strengthening of national capital.
Economic development problems
The country is slowly declining poverty and unemployment. 26% of the population is below the poverty line. The income of the population does not allow them to purchase a minimum of food. Industrial consumer goods are bought by the wealthy elite (5-10%) of the population.
As a result, a dualistic, dualistic market remains in the country. The stagnation of effective demand for basic necessities, which the majority of the population needs, is combined with an increase in effective demand for durable goods.
Among the problems of the Indian economy, it should be noted, in particular, the following:
· Strong dependence on imports of crude oil (due to imports, the country satisfies 77% of the needs for this product). Proven reserves of coking coal are very limited, the quality of thermal coal is poor, the country is experiencing chronic power outages and shortages;
· Due to the fact that almost 26% of the country's inhabitants live below the poverty line, the state is forced to spend significant funds to ensure their minimum subsistence level through various kinds of benefits, subsidies, subsidies;
· In the main sectors of the economy, state corporations still dominate, which negatively affects the development of competition and other market mechanisms;
· "Overregulated" and bureaucratized administrative decision-making processes, widespread corruption;
· Underdeveloped infrastructure;
Numerous problems Agriculture, with which the life of a huge number of Indians is connected, incl. a small number of modern farms, low mechanization of agricultural production, a lack of storage facilities for agricultural products, a large number of intermediary structures, the dependence of agriculture on weather conditions, etc .;
· High unemployment rate, which ranges from 9% in rural areas to 12% in cities.
In 2008. India's GDP exceeded the $ 1 trillion mark (tab.), Thanks to which the country entered the club of trillionaire states, becoming its twelfth member. The strengthening of the national currency of India, the rupee, against the dollar, helped to overcome the barrier. However, analysts emphasize that the country's economy is overheated, and such a rapid strengthening of the rupee will play against Indian exporters. In India, however, they are confident in continued economic growth.
Many experts note, comparing the republic with China (a giant in the production of goods), that "if India plays its cards right, it can become the world leader in the production of services."
Addressing issues related to improving the environmental and material living conditions of Indian citizens, raising the level of education of the country's population, resolving social conflicts, legal regulation in the field of labor migration, raising the standard of living of all citizens in general, will help India in the near future to become the biggest surprise in the world economy. If the country continues to follow the course of economic reforms, then in the near future it will be among the fastest growing economies in the world and become one of the main centers of foreign investment. It is likely that simultaneously with the economic success of India, its global political influence will also grow, having a beneficial effect on the development of the world economy as a whole.
Structural shifts
India has undergone significant changes in recent decades. They were driven by the service sector, whose share rose from 40% in 1990 to 50% in 2004. In terms of the share of services in GDP, India surpasses the level of low-income countries per capita. The speed, quality and complexity of the type of services offered for sale are increasing and strive to meet international standards.
Trade, hotel business, transport and communications developed at the fastest pace. The government views the information and computer technology sector as one of the leading sectors to strengthen the country's position in the global economy. India is fast becoming a major force in the information technology sector. The potential is increasingly being tapped by global software giants such as Microsoft, Hughes, and Computer Associates, which have made significant investments in India. A number of multinationals are taking advantage of the relative value advantage and highly skilled workforce available in India and have established service and order centers in India with the aim of meeting the needs of their customers around the world.
The capital market is developing rapidly. A vast financial and banking sector is contributing to the rapid growth of the Indian economy. The sector also houses a number of national and state financial institutions. They include foreign and institutional investors, investment funds, leasing companies, venture capital enterprises. In addition, the country has a developed stock market, including 23 stock exchanges, with more than 9,000 registered companies, the volume of capitalization is 26% of GDP. Indian stock markets are rapidly transforming towards a market that is modern in terms of infrastructure in line with global practices such as derivatives trading in futures, special trading conditions for certain stocks, trading over the Internet, etc. Indian companies use external sources of finance on a large scale.
An extensive financial and banking sector supports India's fast growing economy. The country can be proud of a wide and developed banking network. The sector also houses a number of national and state financial institutions. They include foreign and institutional investors, investment funds, leasing companies. India has a developed stock market with over 20 stock exchanges with over 10,000 registered companies. Indian capital is moving rapidly towards a market that is modern in terms of real infrastructure, as well as in the best traditions of the international economy.
In the modern global development of the world economy, the most important, if not the main, resource is labor resources (labor), i.e. people capable of producing goods and services.
Labor resources are the economically active part of the working-age population with the physical and spiritual abilities necessary to carry out useful activities in social production. The quality of labor resources is determined by the psychological and physical health of the nation, the level of general and specialized education, accumulated production experience, and the general cultural level.
The number of labor resources depends on the emerging demographic situation in each national economy and the world as a whole.
The most important demographic parameters are population size, its age structure and growth dynamics.
According to the UN methodology, the population is divided into three age groups:
1) from 1 to 14 years old;
2) from 15 to 64 years old;
3) 65 years of age and older.
The active part of the population includes the age group from 15 to 64 years old.
The world's population currently exceeds 7 billion people. Compared to the beginning of the twentieth century, it has increased more than 4 times. According to available estimates, in 2000-2005. the average annual population growth is ~ 75 million people. 1 More than 90% of the increase is in developing countries.
According to the UN, every minute the world's population is increasing by 157 people, of which in developed countries 4 people are added (27 people are born and 23 people die); in developing countries - 153 people are added per minute (237 people are born, 84 people die). 2
In general, the average annual rate of population growth in the world at the turn of the XX / XXI centuries. decreased by almost 2 times in comparison with 1950 and amount to 1.4%. At the same time, in developed countries, the average annual population growth rates are at the level of 0.6% and tend to decrease. These countries account for less than 15% of the world's population. In developing countries, population growth rates are at 1.6% (the highest rate is over 2% in sub-Saharan Africa). Of the ten largest countries in terms of population, seven are in developing countries (Table 12).
Table 12 - Top 10 countries by population, 2010
(million people)
|
Place |
The country |
Number of |
Place |
The country |
Number of |
|
Pakistan | |||||
|
Bangladesh | |||||
|
Indonesia | |||||
|
Brazil |
Calculated: Russia in the APR: prospects for integration. Book 1. - Vladivostok: FEFU, 2001.
As for the age structure, here the trend is multidirectional, broken down by groups of countries. For developed countries, where the living standard of the population is quite high (on average, $ 30 thousand per capita), with low birth and mortality rates, life expectancy increases, and along with it the proportion of the population is "65 years and older", while the proportion of the working-age population decreases ... Demographic aging (demographic crisis) in developed countries is a natural process, which is based on the success of medicine and an increase in the quality of life. Population aging has economic implications. Even labor productivity will rise, and the slowdown in employment growth amid a shrinking labor force is likely to have an impact on a decline in GDP growth. Therefore, the solution to the “shortage” of labor resources will, to a certain extent, be solved through migration from less developed countries. According to scientists, by the beginning of the XXI century. the total number of international migrants has exceeded 150 million people, or about 2.5% of the world's population. one
The opposite trend is observed in the group of developing countries, where (with the exception of NIS) against the background low level of life, its duration is reduced and the share of the population of working age is growing (Table 13).
Table 13 - Life expectancy contrasts by country
According to UN statistics, 20% of the world's population is young people between the ages of 18 and 24. Moreover, in sub-Saharan Africa, this age category is 1/3 of the population. one
The current demographic situation in developing countries, especially in less developed countries, leads to an exacerbation of social and environmental problems, food shortages, increased unemployment, and the persistence of poverty.
According to available forecasts, until 2025 in a number of countries (Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq, Yemen, etc.) the demographic priority of youth will remain, which will intensify the population.
Unemployment is due to the excess of continuation of work of the relevant profile and qualifications of applicants, under the number of available jobs.
Unemployed citizens are considered to be able-bodied citizens who are looking for work, registered at the labor exchange and who have no real opportunity to get a job in accordance with their education, labor skills (an indicator of unemployment is the ratio of the number of unemployed to the active part of the population).
At the present stage of development of the world economy, where the role of scientific and technological progress is increasing, the qualitative characteristics of labor resources are of particular importance in solving the above problem. World practice confirms the existing strong relationship between economic growth and the costs of general education, vocational training and health care, i.e. “Investments in people”, and the profitability of such investments in the long term is higher than investments in physical capital. In modern practice, such investments are no longer viewed as unproductive costs, but are considered one of the most profitable types of investments. According to available data, in developed countries, public spending on education on average exceeds 5% of GDP, while in developing countries the same indicator is about 2%. And in this regard, for developing countries, especially for the least developed of them, there is an acute problem of eliminating illiteracy of the adult population, which directly affects the qualifications of personnel, their productivity, the degree and effectiveness of participation in the international division of labor (this problem will be discussed in more detail below) ...
Terms and concepts
Economic resources
Natural resources
Exhaustible / inexhaustible resources
Labor resources
Economically active population
Unemployment
Migration
Questions and tasks for independent work
1. What is the classification of natural resources?
2. How are natural resources distributed in the world economy?
3. Are there problems in the use of natural resources in the 21st century?
4. What factors determine unemployment among the active part of the able-bodied population?
5. What is the role of the adult literacy level in the development of the economic potential of countries?