His closest followers ("Smithians") - Dr. J. Anderson, Earl of Lauderdale (1759-1838), T. Malthus, T. Took, Colonel Robert Torrance (1780-1864), Sir E. West and J. H. Marcet. Smith laid out a logical system that explained the operation of the free market on the basis of internal economic mechanisms, not external political control.
A new stage in the development of the classical school is marked by the figure of D. Ricardo with his development of the concept of value, original theories of land rent and international trade. Among the direct followers of D. Ricardo were the English economists J. Mill, J. R. McCulloch and T. de Quincey; in addition to the "Ricardians" include W. Senior and G. Martino.
The labor theory of value gave rise to a group of economists who defended the class that earned money through labor. These scientists are known throughout history as the Ricardian Socialists. Among them are T. Godskin, William Thompson (circa 1785 - 1833), Charles Hall (1745-1825), John Gray (1799-1850), John Francis Bray (1809-1895).
The economists who supported the classical school in continental Europe (Continental Classicals) were the Frenchman J. B. Say, the Swiss J. Simon de Sismondi and the German economist F. von Hermann.
The final stage of the school's evolution is represented by the work of J.S. Mill, in whose works the principles of the classical school were finally embodied in economic theory.
In classical economic theory, the economy has the ability to self-regulation and full use of its resources, and any production is organized in order to increase consumption.
Reasons for the appearance
Before the inception of the foundations of the classical school in economics, society was dominated by the opinion about the need for state intervention in the economy. It was believed that this is the only way to form the wealth and well-being of the state. However, from the end of the 17th - the beginning of the 18th century, ideas of non-interference of the state in the economic life of society, that is, economic liberalism, were formed.
It was at this time that a new theoretical school of economic thought was born. Later it will be called classical political economy.
Representatives of the classical school re-formulated the subject and method of studying economic theory. The growth of manufacturing (and then industrialization) highlighted industrial production, which pushed commercial and loan capital... Hence, the sphere of production came to the fore as a subject of study.
The time of its completion is considered from two theoretical and methodological positions. Thus, the Marxist position establishes the period for the completion of development in the first quarter of the 19th century, and the English scientists A. Smith and D. Ricardo are considered the end of the school. According to the other - the most widespread in the scientific world - the classics exhausted themselves in the last third of the 19th century. by the writings of J.S. Mill.
The end of the era of the "classics", the stage of classical political economy (in addition to the above, other names and dating of stages can be found in the literature) does not mean the end of political economy in general, as a science. On the contrary, as in many other sciences, „ classic stage”Is only a“ high start ”of the life cycle of science, opening the next, no less rich pages of its history. The most famous and prominent representatives of this trend were the Scottish scientist Adam Smith (1723-1790) and the Englishman David Ricardo (1772-1823). A. Smith headed the Department of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow, then worked as Chief Customs Commissioner for Scotland. He was the author of many works on economics and philosophy. But his main world-famous work was "Investigation of the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" (1776). In this work, A. Smith gives a comprehensive description of the economic system of society, examines the theory of value, the theory of income distribution, the theory of capital and its accumulation, the economic policy of the state, public finance, gives a detailed criticism of mercantilism. In his book he managed to combine most of the existing areas of economic research.
All economic phenomena considered by A. Smith are based on the labor theory of value. The value of a commodity is created by labor, regardless of the branch of production. Labor enclosed in commodities is the basis for exchange. The price of a commodity is determined by the cost of labor for its production, as well as the ratio of supply and demand for the commodity.
A. Smith gave a detailed analysis of the main incomes of society, - profits, wages and land rent - and defined the value of the social product as the sum of the income of society. The social product embodies the wealth of the country. The growth of wealth depends on the growth of labor productivity and on the share of the population engaged in productive labor. In turn, labor productivity largely depends on the division of labor and its specialization.
When considering economic phenomena and processes, the classics of political economy adhered to a certain system of general prerequisites. Chief among them were the concept of "economic man" and economic liberalism (economic freedom). They considered a person only from the point of view of economic activity, where there is the only incentive for behavior - the pursuit of his own benefit.
The idea of economic liberalism was based on the idea that economic laws act like the laws of nature. As a result of their actions, "natural harmony" is spontaneously established in society. The state does not need to interfere with the operation of economic laws. The principle of economic liberalism and free trade is expressed by the famous slogan "laissez faire, laissez passer" economic activity... The expression has become a symbol of classical economics. In foreign trade, economic liberalism means free trade, without restrictions on exports and imports. This foreign economic policy is called free trade (from the English free trade - free trade).
According to the classics, economic laws and competition act like an "invisible hand". As a result, resources are redistributed for efficient (full) use, prices for goods and resources change rapidly, and an equilibrium is established between supply and demand.
Literature
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See what "Classical Political Economy" is in other dictionaries:
Classical political economy- (classical economics), the system of economics, theories set forth in the works of economists (ch.ob. Brit.) from Smith (The Wealth of Nations, 1776) to Mill (Foundations of Political Economy, 1848). The greatest contribution to the theory of the C.p.E. introduced Smith, Jean Baptiste Say (1767 ... ... Peoples and cultures
CLASSIC POLITICAL ECONOMY- - originated in England in the 17th century. Its founder is W. Petty. In the XVIII century. it was developed by A. Smith, and then in the first quarter of the 19th century. was completed by D. Ricardo. The founder of the school of K. p. E. in France - P. Boisguillebert. Its provisions were developed in their works ... Economics from A to Z: Thematic guide
A science that studies the laws governing production, exchange, consumption and distribution of material goods in society at different stages of its development. The term "P.E." formed from three Greek. words: "polyteya" social structure, "oikos" ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia
P. e. a science that studies social relations that develop in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods, and economic laws governing their development in societies that historically replace each other ...
The trend of bourgeois economic thought that arose during the formation of the capitalist mode of production and the undeveloped class struggle of the proletariat (18th century). Its representatives began for the first time to study the capitalist ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
- (subject and definition of science, its place among other sciences, tasks and methods, historical outline of economic schools). The subject of P. economy as a science is human economic activity, that is, expedient activity aimed at ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron
For the branch of science, see Economics, Economic Theory, Political Economy. Bourgeois political economy is an independent category in history economic doctrines, introduced by Karl Marx when differentiating directions, schools and ... ... Wikipedia
Marxist political economy is a direction in economic theory, the basis of which is the labor theory of value (Adam Smith, David Ricardo), which Karl Marx expanded with the theory of surplus value. This direction was developed ... ... Wikipedia
A system of anti-scientific bourgeois economic theories describing external appearances economic processes for the purpose of apologetic defense of capitalism. V. p. E. gives a scientific form to the everyday ideas of the bourgeois about ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia
Books
- Classical political economy. Contemporary Marxist trend. A basic level of. Advanced level. Issue 155, Buzgalin AV. After the world financial and economic crisis of 2008-2009. interest in the world and in Russia in the theoretical legacy of Karl Marx and classical political economy has grown sharply, but ...
The methodology of classical political economy is presented in the works of the outstanding founders of this school: A. Smith ("A Study on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations", 1776), D. Ricardo ("Principles of Political Economy and Taxation", 1817), N. Senior, J. Mill and others. A. Smith considered the subject of economic science - economic development and the growth of the welfare of society, the development of the economy is based on the material resources of society. The main provisions of A. Smith's methodology are as follows:
The interests of individuals coincide with the interests of society;
- "economic man" is a person endowed with selfishness and striving for an ever greater accumulation of wealth;
Free competition is an indispensable condition for the operation of economic laws;
The pursuit of profit and free trade are viewed as beneficial to the whole of society;
An "invisible hand" acts on the market, with the help of which free competition controls the actions of people through their interests and leads to the solution of social problems the best way, which is most beneficial to both individuals and society as a whole;
Recognition of the operation of objective economic laws;
A quantitative approach to economic laws (finding quantitative relationships between categories such as value, wages, profit, rent, interest, etc.);
Using an abstract method in research.
As a result, he concluded that government regulation should be minimal.
A. Smith described his research method as a system of reasoning in which we first set ourselves "some principles, obvious or proven, proceeding from them, explain a number of phenomena, linking everything together by a common logic of reasoning." A. Smith associated science with "surprise", this allows you to make unexpected discoveries and admire.
D. Ricardo believed that the main task of economic science is to identify the economic laws governing the distribution of the product between classes. He formulated an economic law - "the law of falling rates of profit", created the theory of land rent. D. Ricardo considered economic theory a science not because of the methods it used, but because of the reliability of its conclusions.
N. Senior argued that economic science is based on "a few general premises that follow from observations of the surrounding reality or common sense and which almost every person, having barely heard about them, would recognize as fair, since they coincide with his own observations."
N. Senior identified the following prerequisites:
1) each person seeks to maximize their well-being with the least possible effort;
2) the population is growing faster than the amount of resources needed to feed it;
3) labor, armed with machines, can produce a positive net product;
4) in agriculture, the rate of return decreases.
James Mill defined economics as "mental". She is interested in human motives and the ways people behave in economic life... Mill singled out the following motives: the desire for wealth, the thirst for free time, non-economic motives (habits, customs). He considered political economy to be an abstract science that uses an a priori method, i.e. a way of philosophizing that has nothing to do with experience at all. The a priori method is a way of reasoning based on some hypothesis put forward. Since a hypothesis is a prerequisite, it may have no factual basis, and in this sense it can be said that the conclusions of political economy, like the conclusions of geometry, are correct only in the abstract, i.e. under some assumptions. Thus, J. Mill understood political economy as a science as a deductive analysis based on some psychological premises and abstracting from all economic aspects of human behavior. Deduction is a way of reasoning from general provisions to particular ones, the derivation of particular provisions from any general thought (the opposite of induction). Mill believed that economic laws act like trends.
The main methodological provisions of classical political economy can be expressed in the following points:
1 Classical political economy is a theory of wealth. She studied economics mainly at the exit, from the side of the material result of production activity - the social product, its structure and dynamics. The product theory of the classical school was later used in the studies of K. Marx, V. Leontiev and others, in economic statistics, in various theories of growth. Its empirical base and methods are working with macroeconomic data;
2 The classical school is a school of political economy, not economics. She not only analyzed economic phenomena, but tried to consider them in connection with political, cultural, legal and other relations in society. The theorists of this school had a synthetic, integrating approach;
3 The classical school strove to create an extremely abstract picture of economic reality. This led to a large extent to a gap between the theoretical and empirical bases in scientific research and gave rise to criticism of this direction by K. Marx and the German historical school (W. Roscher, G. Schmoller, etc.);
4 Classical political economy predominantly adopted a qualitative methodology for studying economic phenomena, which led to the presence of large errors in their conclusions and caused a subsequent wave of criticism from other directions.
A. Smith and D. Ricardo laid the foundation for the labor theory of value. A. Smith introduced into scientific circulation and distinguished between the use and exchange value of a commodity: “The word value has two different meanings: sometimes it denotes the usefulness of an object, and sometimes the possibility of acquiring other objects, which is given by the possession of this object. The first can be called use-value, the second-exchange value.
A. Smith begins his research with the division of labor, which plays an important role in increasing productivity and growth national wealth... It is with the division of labor that he has associated the concept of "economic man". This category underlies the analysis of value, exchange, money, production. The value, according to Smith, is determined not by the labor expended by one particular person, but by the average, necessary for a given level of development of the productive forces. D. Ricardo proved that the single criterion for determining value is the labor expended on the production of goods and measured by the cost of working time. He more clearly distinguished between the use-value of a commodity and its value and showed that in production, the value of a commodity is determined by the labor expended.
1 History of Economic Studies / Ed. V.S. Avtonomova, O.I. Ananyina, N.A. Makashova - M., 2001.
2 History of economic doctrines / Ed. A.G. Khudokormova. - M., 1998.
3 Orekhov, A.M. Methods of economic research / A.M. Orekhov. - M., INFRA-M, 2009.
4 Riccardo, D. The beginnings of political economy and taxation / D. Riccardo // Works: in 3 v., Moscow: Politizdat, 1955.
5 Smith, A. Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples / A. Smith. - M .: Ekonov, 1991.- T.1, S.36-37.
1 Describe the main provisions of A. Smith's methodology.
2 Give a description of the research method A. Smith.
3 What are the merits of D. Ricardo in the development of economic science.
4 Describe the main methodological provisions of classical political economy.
Abstract topics
1 Methodology of classical political economy.
2 Research methods of economists of the classical school.
3 Description of the main works of A. Smith.
4 Description of the main works of D. Ricardo.
The classical school of political economy arose during the period of the birth and establishment of the capitalist mode of production. In the 16th century in England, in the depths of the feudal system, new, capitalist relations began to develop. Gradually, with the development of manufactories, the subordination of commercial capital to industrial capital takes place. However, mercantilism, which studied the problems of circulation, gives way to the classical school, which transferred research to the sphere of production. Political economy as a science began with the works of the classical school. It was the classics who made an attempt - and not unsuccessfully - to present all the diversity of the economic world as a single whole, to bring together individual provisions, guesses, observations, conclusions, to isolate and agree on categories and concepts.
An appeal to the works of the founders of economic theory, as a rule, does not have an immediate, narrowly utilitarian meaning. However, it is interesting that some modern authors, using the programming apparatus, are trying to mathematically check the correctness of the basic postulates of A. Smith, the consistency of the most important provisions of his work.
Adam Smith (1723-1790) was a brilliant English economist, the founder of classical political economy. In 1776. the famous work of the scientist "Research on the nature and causes of the wealth of peoples" was published. Since the appearance of this book, political economy has emerged as an independent economic science.
Smith's idea of the "invisible hand" is one of the main ideas of The Wealth of Nations. The meaning of this aphoristic expression is as follows.
Smith proceeds from the premise that the striving of each for his own benefit, for the multiplication of personal wealth is the most important incentive for human activity. It is the driving force behind actions. And this is a prerequisite for creating a just and rational order in society.
Each participant in economic activity is guided by his own interests, pursues personal goals. The influence of the individual on the realization of the needs of society is almost imperceptible. But, in pursuit of his own benefit, a person ultimately contributes to an increase in the social product, the growth of the common good. The "invisible hand" of market laws directs towards a goal that was not at all part of the individual's intentions. Smith showed the motivating power and importance of personal interest as an internal spring of competition and an economic mechanism.
David Ricardo (1772-1823) - one of the brightest personalities of the classical political economy of England, a follower and active opponent of certain theoretical positions of Adam Smith. Riccardo's economic theory is the first scientific system of political economy in the period of industrial capitalism. Ricardo was a follower of Smith in an attempt at taxonomy economic knowledge and the search for methods of theoretical explanation of economics.
As you know, D. Ricardo consistently adhered to the labor theory of value. Labor has its price, which, in his opinion, is determined by the value of the means of subsistence required to support the worker and his family. Changes in wages do not affect the value (and price) of the products produced. Only the ratio between the amount of wages and profits received by the entrepreneur changes: "Everything that increases wages necessarily reduces profits." Thus, wages and profits are inversely related.
According to D. Ricardo, the value of a commodity or the amount of any other commodity for which it is exchanged depends on the relative amount of labor that is necessary for its production, and not on the greater or lesser remuneration that is paid for this labor.
The prerequisite for the growth of wealth is the division of labor. Smith begins his research with an analysis of the division of labor. The division of labor increases the dexterity of each worker and saves time when moving from operation to operation. It promotes the use of more advanced machines and mechanisms, more effective techniques that facilitate work, making it more effective.
Smith's famous example of the pin manufactory is mentioned in many textbooks. If everyone, working alone, performs all the operations, then in a day of work he is able to produce 20 pins. If the workshop employs 10 workers, each of whom specializes in one operation, then together they will produce 48,000 pins. As a result of the manufactory organization of labor, its productivity increases 240 times.
Among other factors in the multiplication of wealth, Smith singles out population growth, an increase in the proportion of the population involved in production, the transition from manufactory to factory, freedom of competition, and the abolition of customs barriers.
In the work of D. Ricardo "Principles of Political Economy and Taxation" there is a special chapter "Value and Wealth, Their Distinctive Properties." Ricardo believes that it would be wrong to equate the increase in value with the increase in wealth. Unlike Smith, he distinguishes between value and material wealth. The size of wealth, its growth depends on the availability of essential necessities and luxuries at the disposal of people. No matter how the value of these items changes, they will equally satisfy their owner. Value differs from wealth, it "does not depend on abundance, but on the difficulty or ease of production."
The prerequisite for increasing wealth, Ricardo notes, is an increase in labor productivity. The lower the cost of producing a unit of goods, the higher the results of labor efforts, the greater the amount of wealth. Ricardo considered the category of capital as a part of the country's wealth, which is used in production and consists of food, clothing, tools, raw materials, machines necessary to set labor in motion.
John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) is the last representative of English classical political economy. His main essay on economic theory - "Fundamentals of Political Economy and Some Aspects of Their Application to Social Philosophy" - was published in 1848.
In his work "Principles of Political Economy," he sought to unite, coordinate the ideas and positions of his predecessors and colleagues, although there were many differences in their approaches to the analysis of economic reality. Mill acts not only as a taxonomist and popularizer of economic knowledge. He managed to deepen or clarify a number of provisions, find more comprehensive formulations, and more fully substantiate the conclusions and conclusions.
Population theory is the only way to ensure full employment and high wages by voluntarily limiting population growth:
- 1. the theory of productive labor: only productive labor, the results of which are tangible, creates wealth. New is the labor of protecting property and acquiring qualifications
- 2. wages - wages for labor and depends on the supply and demand for labor. Are wages lower, ceteris paribus, if labor is less attractive?
- 3.theory of rent - compensation paid for the use of land
- 4.value is relative: the creation of value by labor, the distinction between exchange and use value
- 5.A change in the amount of money affects the change in the relative prices of goods (quantitative theory of money)
Mill set the task of writing an updated version of The Wealth of Nations by A. Smith. And he succeeded to a certain extent. Throughout the second half of the 19th century, Mill's book (1848) was the indisputable bible of economists.
So, Mill systematized, deepened the ideas, provisions, methodology of the classics. His "Principles of Political Economy" is not a new system, but a development of the old concept of the classical school, its updated version.
The processes occurring in the economy, the "classics" presented in the most generalized form as a sphere of interrelated laws and categories, as a logically harmonious system of relations.
A. Smith and D. Ricardo showed that the source of wealth is not foreign trade (mercantilists), not nature as such (physiocrats), but the sphere of production, labor activity in its various forms. The labor theory of value (value), which does not completely refute the usefulness of the product, served as one of the starting points of political economy.
The founders of the first truly scientific school tried to answer the question of what is the measure of labor. The interconnectedness of the main factors of production was demonstrated; identified problems that did not fit into the strict framework of the classical theory.
From a search for external forces or an appeal to the "mind" of power structures, Smith and Ricardo turned their analysis into the sphere of identifying the internal causes underlying the functioning of the market economy. It is not just a matter of the versatility of the analytical conclusions of the classics, but of their consistency and consistency. The propositions and conclusions reached by the "classics" received a more complete and detailed disclosure in the writings of their followers and opponents.
The classical school is not just a collection of principles and postulates. Such an assessment of the school would be too general, in many respects formal. Classical theory- this is "scaffolding" and at the same time the fundamental basis of science, open for the development and deepening, clarification and expansion of topics, improvement of methodology, substantiation of new conclusions and conclusions. The works of these greatest representatives of the school of classical political economy are still relevant today, because world economy develops according to their postulates.
1. The history of economic doctrines dates back to the period of emergence: simple
1) natural economic ideology
2. Studying the history of economic doctrines reveals that economic science is inherent in: average
2) non-unidirectional development
3. Studying the history of economic doctrines makes it possible to better understand in the development of economic science its: simple
3) past and present
4. The subject of the study of the history of economic doctrines covers economic theories: simple
3) individual economists and schools of economic thought
5. The exponents of economic thought in the pre-market era idealized: simple
2) natural-economic relations
6. The final stage of the era of economic doctrines of the pre-market economy was the stage: simple
1) mercantilism
7. The displacement of the previous stage or direction of economic thought by a new (alternative) stage or direction in the history of economic doctrines occurs: average
3) even before the end of the existence of a stage or direction
8. The stage of idealization of the principles of "pure" economic science took place in the era of economic doctrines: average
2) unregulated market economy
9. Hammurabi's laws regulated debt slavery in order to:average
5) prevent the destruction of the foundations of natural economy
10. Aristotle refers to the field of chrematistics:average
4) usury and trade and intermediary operations
11. In accordance with the economic views of Aristotle and F. Aquinas, money – this is:simple
2) the result of an agreement between people
12. According to the concept of "fair price" by F. Aquinas, the cost (value) of a product is based on:average
4) s payable and moral and ethical principle at the same time
1. At the stage of the priority role in the economic science of mercantilism, the concept dominated:simple
1) protectionism
2. The subject of study of mercantilism is:simple
3. The priority method of economic analysis of mercantilism
is an: simple
1) empirical method
4.InAccording to the economic views of the mercantilists, wealth is: simple
1) money is gold and silver
5. In accordance with the mercantilist concept, the source of monetary wealth is:average
5) excess of exports over imports
6. The government was engaged in damage to the national coin during the period:simple
1) early mercantilism
7. In accordance with the views of the mercantilists, macroeconomic equilibrium is ensured in the country:simple
1) coordinating measures of the state
8. Colbertism – this is a characteristic of a protectionist policy in the economy, as a result of which the capacity of the domestic market: simple
3) A. Montchretien
1. At the stage of the priority role in economic science of classical political economy, the concept dominated: simple
2) economic liberalism
2. Subject fromteachings of classical political economy is:simple
2) the sphere of production (supply)
3. In classical political economy, the priority method of economic analysis is:simple
2) the causal method
4.In in accordance with the economic views of representatives of classical political economy, wealth is:
3) money and goods that have a material essence
5. According to classical political economy, money – this is:simple
3) a technical tool, a thing that facilitates exchange
6. According to classical political economy, wages as a worker's income tend to:average
2) to a living wage
3) the quantitative theory of money
8. W. Petty and P. Boisguillebert – the founders of the theory of value, defined by:simple
1) labor costs (labor theory)
9. According to the classification proposed by F. Quesnay, farmers represent:simple
1) performance class
10. According to F. Quesnay's doctrine of "pure product", the latter is created:average
5) in agricultural production
12. A. Turgot considers labor to be the only source of all wealth:average
2) farmer (farmer)
13. According to A. Smith, the capital invested adds a greater value to real wealth and income:average
4) in agricultural production
14. "Invisible Hand" A. Smith – this is:complicated
2) the operation of objective economic laws
15. According to the methodological position of A. Smith, private interest:average
2) stands above public
16. In the structure of trade, A. Smith put in the first place:complicated
1) domestic trade
17. According to A. Smith, in every developed society, the value of goods is determined by:average
3) the amount of income
18. A. Smith considers labor productive if it is applied:simple
2) in any branch of material production
19. A. Smith distinguishes the following parts in the capital structure:simple
2) fixed and working capital
20. The thesis "Smith's Fabulous Dogma" arose in Karl Marx due to the fact that A. Smith: complicated
3) identifies the principle of identifying the value of the "annual product of labor" and "the price of any commodity"
21. N.S. Mordvinov, being a follower of the economic doctrine of A. Smith, believes that the source of the origin of wealth is: average
4) industry, trade and science at the same time
22. A.K. Storch, being a follower of the economic doctrine of A. Smith, admits the productive nature of labor: average
3) in material and non-material production
23. In accordance with the economic views of M.M. Speransky's "gradual improvement of the public" presupposes the implementation of economic policy: average
3) protectionism and economic liberalism at the same time
1. When determining the cost, D. Ricardo adheres to:simple
1) labor theory
2. According to D. Ricardo, the salary tends to decrease, as:average
2) high birth rates generate an excess supply of labor
1) as income from the land
2) the same as the farmer's profit
3) as well as profit in the industrial field
4) as an additional income of the farmer above the level of the average profit in
its scope
5) as a "free gift of the earth"
4. The tendency of the rate of profit to fall, according to D. Ricardo, is generated by the following reasons: complicated
2) a decrease in the relative level of the "market price of labor"
3) an increase in the relative level of the "market price of labor"
4) an increase in the cost of land products due to the constant decrease in its
fertility
5) decline in population rates
6) increase in population rates
5. The main postulates of the "law of markets" Zh.B. Say are: complicated
1) demand creates a corresponding level of supply
2) supply creates a corresponding demand
3) money as the most important independent factor in the reproductive process
4) money is neutral
5) prices, wages and interest rates are completely flexible,
mobile
6) state intervention in the economy is allowed
7) economic crises are impossible or their manifestation is always temporary and transient
6. "Say's Law" has exhausted its relevance with the emergence of economic doctrine: simple
4) J.M. Keynes
7. According to T. Malthus's theory of population, the main causes of poverty are: complicated
1) imperfection of social legislation
2) consistently high population growth rates
3) invariably low level wages
4) excessively high rates of scientific and technological progress
5) "the law of diminishing soil fertility"
8. The theory of population of T. Malthus from among the authors named below was categorically rejected: complicated
1) D. Ricardo
2) S. Sismondi
3) P. Proudhon
5) J.S. Mill
6) K. Marx
7) A. Marshall
9. According to T. Malthus, “third parties” in the reproductive process manifest themselves as: complicated
1) the productive part of society
2) unproductive part of society
3) a factor contributing to the creation and implementation of public
product
4) a factor holding back the full use of capital
5) a factor preventing general overproduction
2) D. Ricardo
3) J.S. Mill
4) K. Marx
5) T. Malthus
1) change the laws of production
2) change the laws of distribution
3) restrict the right of inheritance
4) abolish wage labor with the help of a cooperative productive association
5) subvert the private property system
6) socialize land rent with land tax
7) improve the system of private property for the sake of participation in the income it brings to each member of society
12. He is the only representative of classical political economy who characterizes the category of "capital" as a means of exploiting the worker and as a self-increasing value: simple
4) K. Marx
13. Which of the following reasons give rise, according to K. Marx, the tendency of the rate of profit to decrease: complicated
1) the flow of capital from one occupation to another
2) an increase in the cost of land products due to a decrease in its fertility
3) an increase in the relative level of wages of workers
4) a decrease in the share of variable capital in the capital structure
5) capital accumulation, accompanied by an increase in the structure
capital share of constant capital
14. Which of the following options for the provisions is guided by
K. Marx, if we assume that surplus value is created: average
1) labor, capital and land
2) unpaid labor of productive workers
3) constant capital
4) variable capital
15. The theory of reproduction by K. Marx substantiates such provisions as: complicated
1) cyclical economic development under capitalism
2) the non-cyclical nature of economic development under capitalism
3) differences between simple and extended types of reproduction
4) the legitimacy of doctrines of economic crises of underconsumption
5) the transient nature of economic crises under capitalism
16. A.I. Butovsky, as one of the Smithians of the post-manufactory period, considers the determination of value to be possible on the basis of: average
2) cost theory
17. I.V. Vernadsky, as one of the Smithians of the post-manufactory period, considers the determination of value to be possible on the basis of: average
1) labor theory
18. Being one of the opponents of the Marxist economic doctrine of P.B. Struve believes that Russia should become a country: simple
3) rich capitalist
1. Romantic economists put forward reformatory concepts that substantiate the expediency of priority development: simple
4) small-scale commodity production
2. The reason for the minimization of workers' wages S. Sismondi considers: simple
3) displacement of labor of workers by machines and mechanisms
3. From among those named below, P. Proudhon has the following ideas about expediency: complicated
1) the leading role in the economy of public property
2) the organization of the banks of the people
3) the abolition of money and the creation of constituted value
4) the preference of the functional method over the causal analysis
5) introduction of an interest-free loan
6) liquidation of state power
4. According to the utopian socialists, property should have priority in the economy: simple
3) nationwide
5. The historical school of Germany considers as a subject
economic analysis: simple
6.S.Yu. Witte, as a supporter of the methodology of the German historical school, substantiates the position that: simple
2) the public interest should be higher than the interest of the individual
1. Marginalism (marginal economic theory) is based on
research: simple
3) marginal economic values
2. The subject of study of the subjective psychological direction of economic thought is: simple
1) the sphere of circulation (consumption)
3. The priority method of economic analysis of the subjective psychological direction of economic thought is: simple
4) marginal utility theory
1. The subject of study of the neoclassical direction of economic thought is: simple
3) the sphere of circulation and the sphere of production at the same time
2. The priority method of economic analysis of the neoclassical direction of economic thought is: simple
3) functional method
3. A. Marshall's term "representative firm" characterizes the type of firm: simple
3) medium
4. The cost of goods is characterized by A. Marshall on the basis of:
1) identifying the point of intersection of supply and demand curves
3) J. B. Clark
6. The criterion for achieving general economic equilibrium, according to V. Pareto, should be considered: simple
1) measuring the ratio of preferences of specific individuals
7. In accordance with the economic views of N.Kh. Bunge cost is determined by: average
3) supply and demand
8. In accordance with the economic views of M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky and V.K. Dmitrieva, the determination of the cost is possible on the basis of: average
3) synthesis of labor theory and theory of marginal utility
1. At the stage of the priority role in the economic science of institutionalism, the concept dominated:simple
3) social control of society over the economy
2. Representatives of institutionalism put forward as the subject of economic analysis: simple
5) a set of economic and non-economic factors
3. The priority research methods in institutional theory are: average
1) causal
2) historical and economic
3) functional
4) empirical
5) logical abstraction
6) social psychology
4. The concept of "Veblen effect" characterizes the situation of the influence of consumer behavior on growth demand due to:simple
1) with an increased price level
1) the transition to the "industrial system"
6. According to J. Commons, the value is formed: simple
1) a legal agreement of "collective institutions"
7. From the below named stages in the evolution of "capitalism" J. Commons singles out the following: average
1) capitalism of free competition
2) money economy
3) financial capitalism
4) credit facilities
5) administrative capitalism
8. The antimonopoly concepts of T. Veblen and J. Commons were first tested: average
4) during the "new course" F. Roosevelt
9. W.C. Mitchell is the founder of one of the streams of institutionalism, called: simple
2) market-statistical
10. The economic doctrine of U.K. Mitchell was the basis: simple
4) the concept of a crisis-free cycle
11. Market theories with imperfect competition have arisen: simple
1) after the world economic crisis of 1929-1933.
12. In the theory of monopolistic competition by E. Chamberlin, the main feature of “product differentiation” is the presence of a product of one of the sellers of any essential feature, which may be: average
5) both real and imaginary
13. According to E. Chamberlin, monopolistic competition gives rise to the phenomenon of excess capacity, due to the formation of seller prices: average
3) exceeding costs
14. In conditions of imperfect competition, according to J. Robinson, the size (capacity) of firms: simple
1) exceed the optimal level
1. From the following provisions, the basis of the research methodology
J.M. Keynes are: complicated
1) priority of microeconomic analysis
2) priority of macroeconomic analysis
3) the concept of "effective demand"
4) adherence to the “law of markets” Zh.B. Say
5) investment multiplier
6) penchant for liquidity
2. To stimulate consumer demand for investment, the state, according to J.M. Keynes, should actively promote the regulation of the lending rate: simple
1) downward
3. In accordance with the "basic psychological law" J.M. Keynesian income growth rate of consumption growth: simple
5) increase, but not to the same extent as income
4. Neoliberalism, in contrast to Keynesianism, presupposes: complicated
government measures to invest unprofitable and low-income
profitable sectors of the economy
2) economic liberalization
3) an increase in the volume of government orders, purchases and loans
4) free pricing
5) priority of private property
5. The term "social market economy" was first used by: simple
3) A. Müller-Armak
6. Freiburg school of neoliberalism in the concept of social market economy adheres to the principles: complicated
competition wherever possible, regulation where necessary
automatic functioning of the "free market economy"
synthesis between free and “socially obligatory public
4) concentration of power and collectivism
5) social equalization through equitable distribution
7. The leader of the Chicago school of neoliberalism M. Friedman, in his concept of state regulation of the economy, considers the following principles to be fundamental: complicated
1) priority of non-monetary factors
2) priority of monetary factors
3) the stability of the "Phillips curve"
instability "Phillips curve"
stability of the growth rate of the amount of money, taking into account the "natural
unemployment rate "(ENB)
are: average
1) J.M. Keynes
2) V.V. Leontiev
3) E. Chamberlin
4) P. Samuelson
5) M. Friedman
9. The main scientific achievement of the Russian Nobel laureate in economics L.V. Kantorovich is developing: average
1) linear programming models in the process of using resources
Introduction
Classical political economy is an economic trend of the late 18th - early 19th centuries, designed to solve the problems of free private enterprise.
Classical political economy gave economic theory a truly scientific character. First, it discovered the real source of society's wealth - the production process. Secondly, political economy began to study economic activity as a system that encompasses the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of services and goods. Thirdly, this science did not confine itself to describing phenomena (for example, the exchange of goods for money) and moved on to identifying their essence and the laws of development.
Classical political economy has replaced the era of mercantilism. The characteristic features of classical political economy are as follows:
· Classical political economy is based on the teaching of the labor theory of value.
· The main principle is “laissez faire” (“let things go their own way”), that is, complete non-interference of the state in economic issues. In this case, the “invisible hand” of the market will ensure the optimal allocation of resources.
· The subject of study is mainly the sphere of production.
· The value of a product is determined by the costs spent on its production.
· A person is viewed only as an "economic person" who strives for his own benefit, to improve his position. Morality, cultural values are not taken into account.
· The elasticity of the number of workers in terms of wages is higher than one. This means that any increase in wages leads to an increase in the size of the labor force, and any decrease in wages leads to a decrease in the size of the labor force,
· The purpose of the entrepreneurial activity of the capitalist is to obtain the maximum profit.
· The main factor in increasing wealth is capital accumulation.
· The economic growth achieved through productive labor in the sphere of material production.
· Money is a tool that facilitates the exchange of goods.
In this term paper the following range of issues will be considered:
Historical conditions of origin;
General characteristics of classical political economy;
The reasons for the emergence of classical political economy;
What stages does classical political economy cover;
Characteristics of the stages of classical political economy;
The founders and representatives of classical political economy and their economic views and teachings.
1. General characteristics of the classical direction
1.1. Historical conditions for the emergence of classical political economy
Economic science has a long and rich history... People have always been not indifferent to the processes that directly or indirectly affect the level of their well-being. Therefore, reflections on economic life have accompanied them from the moment of its inception.
The historical conditions that paved the way for the emergence of classical political economy (the classical school) took shape primarily in England. The process of initial capital accumulation was completed here faster than in other European countries. The foundations were laid for manufacturing production, which had a great development already in the 17th century.
As a result of the exacerbation of social contradictions in 1640, a bourgeois revolution began in England, ending the feudal-absolutist system and accelerating the development of capitalist relations. As a result of this, together with the growth of manufacturing production and the development of foreign trade expansion, England in capitalist development significantly outstripped other European countries.
In France, where the feudal system persisted until the last third of the 18th century, capitalism struggled to make its way.
The origins of classical political economy are William Petty (England) and Pierre Boisguillebert (France).
A great contribution to the development of the classical school was made by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Robert Malthus (England), Jean Baptiste Say, François Quesnay, Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (France).
The process of development of the classical school was completed with the works of John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx.
1.2. Reasons for the emergence of classical political economy
During the formation of the foundations of market economic relations in Western Europe and America it became more and more obvious that state intervention in the economy is not the only means in forming the wealth of the state and achieving consistency in the relationship of economic entities in the domestic and foreign markets.
Major works: "Treatise on Taxes and Fees" (1662), "Word of the Wise" (1664), "Political Anatomy of Ireland" (1672), "Political Arithmetic" (1676) "Something about Money" (1682), etc. ...
In all the writings, the rejection of the protectionist ideas of mercantilists is traced as a red thread: wealth, in his opinion, is formed not only precious metals and stones, including money, but also the country's land, houses, ships, goods and even home furnishings; wealth is created primarily by labor and its results: "labor is the father and the active principle of wealth, and the earth is its mother." He denied the "special" role of money in economic life and specified that if any state resorts to damage to coins, this characterizes its decline, the dishonorable position of the sovereign, and the loss of public confidence in money; the prohibition of the export of money abroad is senseless and impossible, this act of the state is tantamount to the prohibition of the import of imported goods into the country.
Among the many progressive ideas of W. Petty, the following are distinguished:
1) the first author of the labor theory of value, which became one of the main features of classical political economy in general, in which he tried to reveal the nature of the origin of the value of goods, as well as the reasons that affect their level of value in the market. “The value of a commodity is created by labor in the extraction of silver and is its 'natural price', and the value of commodities, as determined by equating it with the value of silver, is their 'true market price'. Or: the value of a commodity is determined by the participation of labor and land in its creation, i.e. he lays the cost approach in the basis of the price of the goods.
2) the author of a number of provisions on the incomes of workers, owners of money capital and landowners, which became the basis for further research D. Ricardo and T. Malthus, following W. Petty, characterized wages as the price of a worker's labor, representing the minimum means for his existence and his family ... He characterized the incomes of entrepreneurs and landowners with the universal concept of “rent,” meaning by it the difference between the cost of grain and the cost of its production, ie. replacing the concept of manufacturer's profit.
3) investigated the problem of determining the price of land, which is due to the location of the land and the market - “nearby populated areas, for the subsistence of the population of which large areas are needed, land not only brings a higher rent, but also costs a greater amount of annual rent than land of exactly the same quality but located in more remote areas. " Author of the idea of the relationship between loan interest and annual land rent.
4) an adherent of the quantitative theory of money, demonstrated an understanding of the laws about the amount of money required for circulation - "... money in itself does not constitute wealth."
Taking into account the state of society and science of that time, naturally W. Petty did not avoid fundamental mistakes in his works: criticism of mercantilism is accompanied with tendentious considerations - he completely biasedly denies the participation of trade and commercial capital in the creation of national wealth (the opposite extreme), insists on reducing a significant part merchants who are compared to "players involved in the distribution of blood and nutritional juices of the state" (products Agriculture); the price of goods in each of the interpretations of its essence is based only on the cost approach, i.e. dead end; a number of concepts proposed by him are unreasonably simplified and distort their essence. Thus, the concept of "rent" unified by him has been simplified to the limit. This is a replacement for rent of profit, interest on loans. Considering the essence of the origin of the loan interest, he declares that this indicator should be equal to "rent from such and such an amount of land that can be bought for the same money in a loan, provided there is complete public safety."
Thus, William Petty took a big step forward in the development of economic theory.
2.2. The emergence of the classical school in France. P. Boisguillebert and his "Accusation of France". The economic doctrine of F. Quesnay
Pierre Boisguillebert (1646-1714) is considered the founder of the classical school in France.
The first reformatory (anti-mercantilist) judgments were published anonymously in 1695-1696 in the book “A detailed description of the situation in France, the reasons for the decline in its welfare and simple ways restoration, or how in one month to deliver to the king all the money that he needs, and enrich the entire population. " It is based on a criticism of the economic policy of the mercantilism of Jean Baptiste Colbert, Minister of Finance under Louis XIV.
In 1707. published a two-volume essay "The Accusation of France", which was banned for harsh criticism of the government. Removing sharp attacks, leaving not so much evidence as persuasion and incantations about the need for economic reforms, he republished the book three times. During his lifetime, he did not receive recognition of his ideas.
In the center of P. Boisguillebert's research is the problems of agricultural development, in which he saw the basis of economic growth and the wealth of the state. Under the influence of his ideas, for 100 years, physiocracy (the power of nature, Greek) flourished in the economic thought of France - a trend of classical political economy, whose representatives considered land and agricultural production to be decisive in creating national wealth.
Scientific merits of P. Boisguillebert: his works became a torretic and methodological basis for the final debunking of mercantilism and the formation of specific traditions of the French classical school; independently of W. Petty, he came to the conclusion that the country's wealth does not lie in the physical mass of money, but in all the variety of useful goods and things; analyzing the mechanism of the price relationship between goods on the market, taking into account the amount of labor expended and working time, he substantiated the labor theory of value, which, despite the costly method, was progressive for its time.
At the same time P. Boisguillebert: deliberately made the role of agriculture absolute; underestimated the role of money as a commodity; denied real meaning in increasing the property wealth of industry and trade; the only one among all representatives of classical political economy, who considered it possible and necessary to abolish money, which violates the exchange of goods at "true value".
In classical political economy, two schools were formed - the French (physiocrats) and the English. The founder and head of the Physiocrats in France was François Quesnay.
He develops this idea with the concept of the growth of the division of social labor, which has become the doctrine of technical progress as the main means of increasing the wealth of "any country at all times."
3.2. Features in the research methodology of A. Smith
The greatness of A. Smith as a scientist lies in his economic forecasts and fundamental theoretical and methodological positions, which for more than 100 years predetermined the direction of development of scientific economic thought and the economic policy of many states.
The central place in the research methodology of A. Smith belongs to the concept of economic liberalism - non-interference of the state in entrepreneurial activity. The concept is based on the idea of natural order, i.e. market economic relations. “Market laws can best influence the economy when private interest is higher than public interest, ie. 1fgda interests of society as a whole are considered as the sum of interests of its constituent persons ”.
In the development of this idea, Smith introduced the winged concepts of "economic man" and "invisible hand".
The essence of the "economic man": "dogs do not consciously change bone with each other" - "the division of labor is the result of a certain inclination of human nature to trade and exchange" - "he (the" economic man ") will sooner achieve his goal if he turns to their egoism (other people) and will be able to show them that it is in their own interests to do for them what he requires of them. Anyone proposing a deal of any kind to another is proposing to do just that. Give me what I need, and you will get what you need - that is the meaning of any such proposal ... We do not expect to receive our lunch from the benevolence of a butcher, brewer or baker, but from their observance of their own interests. We do not appeal to their humanity, but to their selfishness and never tell them about our needs, but about their benefits. " A. Smith's “economic man” is an egoist who strives for personal enrichment through the production and sale of quality goods or services.
The essence of the "invisible hand": "each individual person... means his own benefit, and not at all the benefits of society ... and in this case, as in many others, he is guided by an invisible hand towards a goal that was not at all part of his intentions ... in pursuit of his own interests , he often serves the public interest more effectively than when he deliberately seeks to do so. " The meaning of the "invisible hand" is to promote such social conditions and rules under which, thanks to the free competition of entrepreneurs and through their private interests market economy will solve social problems in the best way and will lead to harmony of personal and collective will with the greatest possible benefit for each and every one.
Thus, the main thing in Smith's methodology is the "obvious and simple system of natural freedom", which, thanks to the "invisible hand", is always automatically balanced.
The state remains, as A. Smith writes, "three very important responsibilities": 1) the costs of public works, in order to "create and maintain certain public buildings and public institutions", to ensure the remuneration of teachers, judges, officials, priests and others who serve the interests of "the sovereign or the state"; 2) the costs of ensuring military security; 3) the costs of the administration of justice, including the protection of property rights.
It was A. Smith who formulated the main task of science: “... the main task of the political economy of each country is to increase its wealth and power; therefore, it should not give preference or give special encouragement to foreign trade in consumer goods, preferably over domestic trade, or transit trade, preferably over both. "
3.3. A. Smith's theoretical legacy
2) A new moment in the research methodology of J. S. Mill - an attempt to identify differences in the concepts of "statics" and "dynamics". He notes that all economists tend to want to know the laws of the economy of a "stationary and unchanging society", but now it is necessary to add "the dynamics of political economy to its statics"
3) In the theory of labor productivity, J. S. Mill is essentially in complete solidarity with A. Smith - "only productive labor (that is, the results of which are tangible) creates wealth - a material good" the acquisition of qualifications, the protection of property, which allow increasing accumulation. For the rest - "any income from unproductive labor is a simple redistribution of income created by productive labor."
4) Essentially the salary of J.S. Mill relies on D. Ricardo and T. Malthus - this is a payment for labor, which depends on the supply and demand for labor, the minimum wage for workers is inevitable. This became the basis of his doctrine of the "workers fund", according to which the class struggle, trade unions cannot prevent the formation of wages at the subsistence level. His idea is interesting that the salary, other things being equal, is lower if the work is less attractive. In 1869, he recognized the possibility of the influence of trade unions on wage growth.
5) In the theory of capital, J.S. Mill concludes that capital is "a previously accumulated stock of products of past labor." Capital formation as a basis for investment allows to expand the scale of employment and can prevent unemployment, if, however, we do not mean "unproductive expenses of the rich"
6) In the theory of rent, he has a common position with D. Ricardo - this is "compensation paid for the use of land."
7) In the theory of income distribution, he is a supporter of T. Malthus. The theory of population is an axiom for him, especially since in England after the census in 1821. for 40 years, livelihoods have not outpaced population growth.
8) In the theory of value, J.S. Mill repeats D. Ricardo - value is created by labor, it is the amount of labor that "is of paramount importance" in the event of a change in value.
9) The theory of money by J.S. Mill is quantitative: a change in the amount of money affects the relative change in the prices of goods. All other things being equal, the value of money itself "changes in inverse proportion to the amount of money: every increase in quantity lowers its value, and every decrease increases it in exactly the same proportion."
10) The first judgments and interpretations of socialism and the socialist structure of society among the major representatives of political economy belong to J.S. Mill. His doctrine of social reforms is based on the fact that "it is impossible to change only the laws of production, not the laws of distribution." This is a manifestation of his lack of understanding that production and distribution are not separate spheres, but comprehensively interpenetrating ones.
For all his goodwill towards "socialism" J.S. Mill fundamentally dissociates himself from "socialism" in that social injustice is allegedly connected with the rights of private property as such. "Only in the backward countries of the world is the increase in production the most important task - in the more developed countries it is considered economically necessary to improve distribution."
The main conclusion is that the solution of practical problems requires "the spread of the socialist worldview," but "the general principle should be laisses faire, and every deviation from it, not dictated by considerations of some higher good, is a clear evil." The state should intensify its participation in the socio-economic development of society and carry out related reforms - by regulating the bank interest rate, reducing large government spending, creating infrastructure, developing science, and developing progressive legislation.
To prevent the government from "molding the opinions and feelings of people from a young age," he recommends a private school system or compulsory home education up to a certain age instead of public education.
5.2. The economic doctrine of Karl Marx
Conclusion
The classical school of political economy is one of the mature areas of economic thought that have left a deep mark in the history of economic doctrines. The economic ideas of the classical school have not lost their significance to this day.
The classical trend originated in the 17th century and flourished in the 18th and early XIX century. The greatest merit of the classics is that they placed labor as a creative force and value as the embodiment of value at the center of economics and economic research, thus laying the foundation for the labor theory of value. The classical school became the messenger of ideas economic freedom, the liberal direction in the economy. Representatives of the classical school have developed a scientific understanding of surplus value, profit, taxes, land rent. In the depths of the classical school, in fact, economic science was born.
The characteristic features of classical political economy include the following:
1. Classical political economy is based on the teaching of the labor theory of value.
2. The main principle is “laissez faire” (“let things go their own way”), that is, complete non-interference of the state in economic issues. In this case, the “invisible hand” of the market will ensure the optimal allocation of resources.
3. The subject of study is mainly the sphere of production.
4. The value of a product is determined by the costs spent on its production.
5. A person is considered only as an "economic person" who strives for his own benefit, to improve his position. Morality, cultural values are not taken into account.
6. The elasticity of the number of workers in terms of wages is higher than unity. This means that any increase in wages leads to an increase in the size of the labor force, and any decrease in wages leads to a decrease in the size of the labor force,
7. The purpose of the entrepreneurial activity of the capitalist is to obtain the maximum profit.
8. The main factor in increasing wealth is capital accumulation.
9. Economic growth is achieved through productive labor in the sphere of material production.
10. Money is a tool that facilitates the exchange of goods.
So, in the course of work, I found out the following.
For the first time the term "classical political economy" was used by K. Marx. And the term "political economy" was first used by A. Montchretien in 1615.
The founders of classical political economy are W. Petty (England) and P. Bouagillebert (France).
Classical political economy includes 4 main stages.
In this course work I have examined the economic teachings of the main representatives of classical political economy, such as: W. Petty, P. Bouagillebert, F. Quesnay, A. Smith, D. Riccardo, J. B. Say, T. Malthus, J. S. Mill, K. Marx.
Agapova I.I. History of Economic Thought: A Course of Lectures. - M .: ed. "TANDEM", 1998. - (electronic textbook).
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) - modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Boisguillebert Pierre (1646-1714), French economist, founder of classical bourgeois political economy in France, one of the founders of the labor theory of value ...
Titova N.E. History of economic doctrines: A course of lectures - M .: Humanitarian publishing center VLADOS, 1997. - p. 36
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) is a modern universal Russian encyclopedia. Physiocrats (French physiocrates; from the Greek physis - nature and kratos - strength, power, domination), representatives of the classical school of political. savings 2nd floor. 18th century in France. Physiocrats explored the sphere of production, laid the foundation for scientific analysis reproduction and distribution of the social product. The "pure product" is created, according to the physiocrats, only by agricultural labor. Divided bourgeois society into classes. Opposed mercantilism; supporters of free trade.
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) - modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Quesnay Francois (1694-1774), French economist. Founder of the school of physiocrats. He worked out the problems of social reproduction. The main work is "The Economic Table" (1758).
Avtonomov V., Ananin O., Manashev I. History of economic doctrines. - M .: INFRA-M, 2006. - 784 p. - (Higher education).
Gorodetsky V. History of economic doctrines: A course of lectures. - M. - (electronic textbook).
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) - modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Adam Smith. From "Research on the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations"
Barshenev S.A. History of Economic Studies: Textbook. - M .: Economist, 2004.
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) - modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) RICARDO David (1772-1823), English economist, one of the largest representatives of classical political economy.
Jean Baptiste Say (1767–1832) was a French economist. He entered the history of economic thought as the author of the theory of utility. Titova N.E. History of economic doctrines: A course of lectures - M .: Humanitarian publishing center VLADOS, 1997. - p. 58.
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) - modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Malthus Thomas Robert (1766-1834), English economist, founder of Malthusianism. Foreign honorary member of the Petersburg Academy of Sciences (1826).
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) - modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Mill John Stewart (1806-73), English philosopher and economist. The ideologist of liberalism. Son of J. Mill. Founder of English positivism
Gorodetsky V. History of economic doctrines: A course of lectures. - M. - (electronic textbook).
Gorodetsky V. History of economic doctrines: A course of lectures. - M. - (electronic textbook).
Great Encyclopedia of Cyril and Methodius "(BECM) - modern universal Russian encyclopedia (on 8 CDs) Karl Marx (1818-83), thinker and public figure, founder of Marxism.
Gorodetsky V. History of economic doctrines: A course of lectures. - M. - (electronic textbook).
Agapova I.I. History of Economic Thought: A Course of Lectures. - M .: ed. "TANDEM", 1998. - (electronic textbook)