World economy and its industry structure. International economic integration

Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity:

Ø to deepen knowledge about the world economy and its sectoral structure

Ø to master the international division of labor and its forms;

Ø to understand the significance of economic ties between countries and to establish their forms;

The concept of the world economy. World economy - it is a historically formed set of national economies of all countries of the world, interconnected by world economic relations in the form of foreign trade, capital export, labor migration, international economic organizations, etc.

The world economy is complex economic system... Most often, the internal structure of the world economy is subdivided into components that reflect the nature production processes(industry). The following sectors are distinguished: agriculture, industry, transport and communications, the service sector.

The structure of the world economy consists of spheres and types of economic activity and can be represented as follows:

To compare the sectoral structure of the economy individual countries the world, the level of their economic development, the division of all sectors of the economy into four sectors is used. The primary sector includes mining, agriculture and forestry, hunting and fishing. Its share in the world as a whole accounts for 5% of world GDP, and in high developed countries ah about 2%. Secondary, consisting of all branches of the processing industry, from the energy, metallurgical, machine-building and ending with the food industry. Its share in the world economy is 31%, and in highly developed countries 32%. The tertiary sector includes transport, communications, services. Its share in the whole world accounts for 63% of GDP, and in highly developed countries - 66%. Quaternary, including newest species information activity - collection, processing and use of information in all areas of activity.

The structure of the world economy is characterized by data on the produced gross domestic product by spheres of production and the number of people employed in these spheres. (Which sectors of the economy belong to the manufacturing sector? Which sectors belong to the non-manufacturing sector?)

The main sphere of the modern world economy is the sphere of production of services, which employs 1/3 of the economically active population and produces 2/3 of world GDP. In terms of the number of employed workers, it is second only to agriculture. The prevailing world relations between the sphere of material production and the sphere of services differ greatly between individual countries. According to the structure of gross domestic product, all countries of the world can be divided into three groups, depending on the prevalence of one or another sphere of economic activity in them. Countries where agriculture predominates in the structure of the economy are called agrarian... In countries dominated by industry, they are called industrial. Among them, a special place is occupied by “new industrialized countries". These are developing countries that have a sharp expansion in the volume and geography of manufacturing exports.

In developed countries service industry accounts for up to 75% of GDP. Countries with similar economies are usually called postindustrial.

International division of labor. The natural division of labor existed at the dawn of the development of human civilization. With the development of the productive forces and the development of commodity production, a social division of labor arose. This concept includes the division in society of social functions performed by groups of people and the allocation in this regard of various spheres of society (industry, agriculture, science, army, etc.), which in turn are divided into smaller sectors. An integral part of the social division of labor is the geographical division of labor. The highest form of the geographical division of labor - international division of labor, those. specialization of individual countries in the production of specific products and services, and the subsequent exchange of them. World trade stimulates the development of specialization and the improvement of the quality of goods. This is how branches of international specialization arise: aerospace, electrical engineering, electronic, automobile, food, etc. In deepening the international division of labor, a significant role belongs to foreign investment.

The international division of labor is the foundation economic relations between states. The system of foreign economic relations, which is based on the international division of labor, is called international economic relations. International economic relations include the diverse participation of countries in the exchange of material and spiritual values. The main forms of international economic relations are: international trade, international financial and monetary relations.

In the era of scientific and technological revolution, international scientific and technical cooperation has expanded dramatically, which includes trade in scientific and technical knowledge, research and development. In the practice of trade in scientific and technical knowledge, the following basic forms have developed: licensed trade and "know-how". A license is the right to use any registered invention (in the form of a patent). Most of the patents are registered in the United States, which are also the main sellers of licenses in the world market. The share of the USA in the export of licenses reaches 2/3 of world trade in some years. The main buyers of licenses are Japan and Germany. The know-how trade makes it possible to obtain not only technology, but also its technical support and personnel training. An international labor market is emerging in the world economy. It is associated with the movement of people from one country to another, mainly in search of work. The leading exporters of labor in the world are the countries of East, Southeast and South Asia (India, China, Pakistan, etc.), Mexico and North African countries (Algeria, Egypt), Turkey. Most of these migrants go to countries Western Europe and the USA, where they are mainly engaged in low-skilled labor. In the last two decades, the emigration of the scientific and creative intelligentsia has increased.

International economic integration. International economic relations are developing in the context of ever closer interaction between the countries of the world. The close economic relationship of states is called economic integration. Economic integration allows the most efficient use of natural and socio-economic resources of individual countries. Integration is especially beneficial for small developed states that have limited resources and highly specialized production.

Integration associations. There are five main forms of integration associations: Free Economic Zones, Free Trade Zone, Customs Union, Common Market, and Economic Union.

Free Economic Zones(FEZ) operate successfully in many countries of the world. Free Economic Zones are the first form of economic integration. The creation of the SEZ is aimed at activating and liberalizing externally economic activity, creation of joint ventures. FEZs are an independent territorial-geographical enclave with varying degrees of isolation from the economic space of a given country. It involves the abolition of tariff and non-tariff barriers in mutual trade between interested countries. In most cases, the terms of the free trade zone apply to all goods except products. Agriculture... In a free trade zone, customs control is maintained at the borders of each country. It must prevent the entry of goods from third countries.

The FEZ economy has a high degree of openness to the outside world, and customs, tax, investment regimes are favorable for internal and external investments. FEZs function both in developed countries (USA, Great Britain, Japan, Germany, etc.) and in countries with economies in transition and developing ones - (China, Russia, Guatemala, Sri Lanka, etc.).

The most important role in shaping the structure of these zones belongs to foreign direct investment. It is dominated by textiles, clothing, electronics and some other industries that provide export products. FEZs contribute to the expansion of exports of manufactured products. The largest number of such zones is in Asia, especially in newly industrialized countries, and in China. The second place in terms of their number belongs to Latin America. FEZs have been created and are successfully operating in the Republic of Belarus.

Free trade zones- supposes the abolition of tariff and non-tariff barriers in mutual trade between interested countries. In most cases, the conditions characteristic of a free trade zone apply to all goods except agricultural products. In a free trade zone, customs control is maintained at the borders of each country. It must prevent the penetration of goods from third countries. The free trade zone is a prerequisite for the transition to the next form of economic integration - the customs union. Among the free trade zones, the most famous are the North American (NAFTA), ASEAN (nine countries of Southeast Asia), etc.

Customs Union- a form of economic integration, within which customs restrictions have been eliminated at the stage of creating a free trade zone. The countries of the customs union establish common trade barriers in relation to third countries. Customs restrictions on the internal borders of countries are removed. The countries of the customs union have an appropriate body that coordinates the implementation of a single and agreed foreign trade policy.

Common Market got its name due to the initial tasks of creating a single market for goods, capital and labor. In this case, countries unite their efforts already at the production stage, and not only during the exchange of manufactured products. Among the common markets, one can single out - South American ("MERCASUR"). In 1989, at the initiative of Australia, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Organization (APEC) was organized. It includes 22 countries in Asia and America and Oceania. The purpose of the formation of this organization is to create a single economic space through the liberalization of trade, investment regime, development of economic cooperation.

Economic union represents the most mature form of integration. Compared to the common market, the economic union is characterized by greater unity. It is characterized by the development of a single economic policy, a single currency, the creation of national economic bodies, the maximum simplification of economic and political borders. So far there is only one economic union in the world - the European Union.

The common organs of the EU are: the European Council, the European Parliament, the Council of the EU, the European Commission, a supranational executive body (European government). It is he who is responsible for the implementation of the decisions taken within the EU. The EU is headquartered in Brussels. The European Parliament meets in Strasbourg. The total population of the EU is about 500 million.

After the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed. The CIS countries cooperate in the political, economic, environmental and humanitarian fields. The CIS headquarters is located in Minsk.

The modern process of international economic integration is characterized by education transnational corporations (TNCs)... This accelerates the development of the world economy. TNCs are distinguished by a high degree of internal organization, concentration of capital, have a modern scientific and technical base and influence the volume, structure and direction of international commodity flows and services.

TNCs are corporations that have an annual turnover of at least $ 100 million and have branches in more than 6 countries around the world. They are characterized by the sale of goods both within the country and abroad. TNCs now control the development of the world market for goods and services. TNCs now control the development of the world market for goods and services. The largest TNCs are located in countries such as the USA, Japan, Germany, France, Great Britain and others. These corporations are the creators of effective regulation of markets and competition at the global level.

The leading TNCs in the world include Microsoft, which deals with software, General Electric, which deals with electronics, Exxon-Mobil, which specializes in the production and processing of oil and gas, Walmart (retail), Pfizer ( pharmaceuticals), Citigroup (finance), etc. Of the 10 leading TNCs in the world, 8 are located in the USA and 2 in the UK (Royal Dutch Shell and British Petroleum), specializing in the extraction and processing of oil and gas.

In the last decade, joint ventures have begun to emerge in the world economy. Joint ventures are organizations in which foreign partners take part. The main goal of creating joint ventures is to increase the volume of exports of goods and services and improve the efficiency of export-import operations. Creation of joint ventures also allows attracting new and newest technologies to the country. If earlier joint ventures were mainly engaged in trading activities, now a large number of them are beginning to organize the production of goods.

Questions and tasks:

What was one of the main prerequisites for the emergence of the world economy?
* What economic benefits can a country get from participating in MRI?
What is the basis of international economic relations?
What is the essence of economic integration? What kind of integration associations exist?
What is the difference between a common market and an economic union?

§ 17. Influence of scientific and technological progress on the world economy

Examining the content of the paragraph provides opportunity:

Ø to master the features of economic development using the achievements of scientific and technological progress.

Scientific and technical progress. The concepts of scientific and technological progress (STP) and scientific and technological revolution (STR) are not synonymous. NTP is a broader concept, and NTP is an integral part of it. STP is understood as a continuous process of development, accumulation, implementation and use of new knowledge and innovations (technical, technological, economic, resource, etc.), which stimulate a qualitative transformation of both the production of goods and the service sector. The introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress in the economy allows increasing the socio-economic efficiency of the economy, ensuring the satisfaction of more and more new needs of society, maintaining the state of the natural environment at the proper level. There are usually two components of the NTP. First, it is the production of knowledge and innovation in the innovation sector. The growth of the potential of knowledge as a factor of production is reflected in the income from the sale of patents, licenses and technological expertise. New production methods increase labor productivity. Secondly, it is the use of innovations in the economy. Once innovations are developed in the innovation sector, they must be implemented. Their implementation takes place through updating the main production assets manufacturing sector. This means that outdated technological equipment is being replaced by new ones.

Most scientists distinguish two periods in the development of scientific and technological progress. The first period (1770-1920) is associated with the transition from manual labor to machine production. The main symbol of the beginning of scientific and technological progress can be considered the invention of the steam engine by D. Watt, and then, on its basis, a steam locomotive, a steamboat, a steam hammer, etc. At this stage, the spread of technological and technical innovations was carried out extensively - to new industries and economic regions.

The second period (from 1920 to the present) is characterized by the development of mass production, which also led to mass consumption. This stage, in contrast to the first, is characterized by a new ratio of production factors at a qualitatively different technological level (widespread use of electricity, computer facilities, etc.). At the same time, information begins to occupy a priority place among the factors of production.

In addition to new equipment and technology, necessary condition development of scientific and technological progress is the transformation of the activities of the person himself, the nature of his work. She makes high demands on the educational and qualifications of the workforce. Significant differences between more developed and less developed countries in the structure of employment in the proportion of engineering and technical personnel and skilled workers reflect differences in the levels of their socio-economic development. Unskilled labor is almost never used in most industries in developed countries, and the proportion of intellectual labor is constantly growing. The capital, which is materialized in knowledge, skills, physical health of the population of developed countries, is 25 times more per capita than in developing countries. The high quality of labor resources is the national wealth of countries, which has been accumulated over many years by investing in the education and training system. Knowledge of highly qualified specialists makes science an immediate productive force.

STP had a great impact on the sectoral structure of the economy. The sectoral structure of the economy is usually understood as the ratio of its parts, which have developed as a result of the social division of labor. Considering the sectoral structure of the economy of the countries of the world, three types of established farms can be distinguished. The agrarian type includes countries in which the share of agriculture in GDP exceeds 40%. This type of economy is represented mainly by African and Latin American countries. The industrial type includes countries in which the share of industry in the structure of GDP is from 40% to 60%. These are separate countries of the former USSR, a number of Asian countries. The post-industrial type of countries includes countries in which the share of the service sector is more than 2/3 of GDP. These are most of the countries in Europe, USA, Japan, Singapore, etc.

Under the influence of scientific and technological progress, there is also a change in the role of individual factors in the location of production. If earlier such factors as the availability of natural resources, the transport factor, the consumption factor, etc. had a great influence on the location of production, then in the modern location the leading role belongs to the scientific potential, the information factor, and the qualifications of labor resources.

Scientific and technological revolution. Scientific and technological progress (STP) is perceived as a constant improvement and improvement of tools of labor and methods of production. Unlike NTP, scientific and technological revolution (STR)- This is a milestone qualitative leap in the development of science and technology, radically transforming the productive forces of society and society itself. (What revolutionary changes in industries and agriculture do you know?)

The modern period of scientific and technological revolution is characterized by four main features: 1) the rapid, accelerated development of science, a sharp reduction in the time between scientific discovery and its introduction into production. For example, the incubation period for photography lasts 112 years, while for solar panels it is only 2 years. 2) versatility, i.e. Scientific and technological revolution covered all branches and spheres of human activity in all countries of the world; 3) increasing requirements for the level of qualifications of performers; 4) the military-applied orientation of scientific and technological revolution as a consequence of its inception during the Second World War.

NTR is a complex system that contains four components:

The science. Research expenditures have become an important indicator of the country's development. An important feature of modern scientific and technological revolution is the ever-increasing costs of research and development. Expenditures on science or R&D (research and development and development are constantly growing. In the mid-1990s, the absolute expenditures on R&D amounted to about $ 500 billion, and developed countries (excluding the CIS) account for up to 95% of all such The share of expenditures on R&D in developed countries is 2.3–3% of GDP, in developing countries - 0.3–0.5%. The place of science in modern society is judged by two indicators: 1) employment and 2) size costs. 8.2 million people are employed in research activities in the world, including 4.7 million in the member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), 1.9 million in developing countries, and in countries with economies in transition - 1.6 million people. In the United States, the number of scientists and engineers is 1 million, in Japan - 800 thousand, in the Federal Republic of Germany - 250 thousand.The number of scientists and engineers per 1000 inhabitants in Japan is 6.4, in the United States - 3.8, in Western Europe - 2.3, in developing countries only 0.1–0.3 people. Success in introducing the achievements of scientific and technological revolution into production is directly related to a well-functioning education system and the volume of costs for it.

Technique and technology, which embody scientific knowledge and are open. With the help of technology, new means of production are created, and with the help of technology, new methods of processing raw materials and materials. - This is most clearly manifested in electronics. Therefore, the last wave of scientific and technological revolution is called the "microelectronic revolution". Depending on the goals and functions, equipment and technology are classified into labor-saving (creation of highly productive intelligent technologies) and resource (material) saving, environmental, informational.

Industrial enterprises widely use electronic computers, robots, use new energy sources (atomic, thermonuclear). In this regard, the complexity of labor and its efficiency are sharply increasing, the demand for highly qualified labor is increasing.

Robots are used in the most labor-intensive and hazardous industries. The joint use of electronic computers (computers) and robots using the most modern machine tools and aggregate equipment (flexible production systems, FPS) increases labor productivity tenfold. For example, computers that perform billions of operations per second make it possible to switch to remote control of the most complex units, devices, machines on earth, water, in space, and then it will become possible to do this underground and under water. The symbol of the technical revolution of the 18th – 19th centuries. there was a steam engine, the computer is the symbol of modern scientific and technological revolution.

Production. This direction is associated with the restructuring of the energy sector, the production of new structural materials, the microbiological and aerospace industries. Scientific and technological developments have an impact on growth rates and the level of development, sectoral structure and location of production. The achievements of scientific and technological revolution were used to the greatest extent by the highly developed countries of the West. In these countries, there was a process of transferring production to new equipment and technologies, saving energy and raw materials. Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, a new structure is being formed, which is called postindustrial (informational). The post-industrial structure is characterized by an increase in the share of the non-production sphere (services, science, education, culture). Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, changes took place in the structure of material production, where the leading positions were taken by the processing industries and, first of all, mechanical engineering, the chemical industry and the electric power industry. At the same time, the role of the extractive industry declined. The territorial concentration of the economy and the population is associated with the scientific and technological revolution, which gives an economic effect. However, at the same time, there is a process of territorial decentralization through the creation of small and medium-sized enterprises, mini-factories, mini-hydroelectric power plants, etc.

Under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, significant changes occur both in the location of production and in its structure (table).

Table. Employment structure in countries with at different levels economic development (2003, in%)

Control, those. purposeful, expedient actions aimed at harmonizing the opinions of people and the compatibility of their activities.

In developed countries, scientific and technological revolution is manifested in the growth of scientific and technical equipment and intensification of production based on the use of genetic engineering, biotechnology, robotics and electronics. Now the developed countries are carrying out a "biotechnological revolution" in agriculture. Biotechnology is one of the most important areas of research and development. Biotechnology makes it possible to breed plant varieties with new genetic properties, highly productive breeds of farm animals, create new generation drugs, etc., makes it possible to produce liquid fuel from agricultural waste and cellulose-containing materials.

If earlier its main indicator of scientific and technological progress in agriculture was the use of tractors, then at the present stage - systems of agricultural machines, new technological processes, mineral fertilizers and pesticides.

In the 60s of the twentieth century, the concepts of "green" and biotechnological "revolution" became widespread. "Green Revolution" - this is the transformation of agriculture on the basis of modern agricultural technology, which is one of the forms of scientific and technological progress. It includes three main components: 1) growing new varieties of crops, primarily cereals; 2) expansion of irrigated land; 3) wider use of modern technology and fertilizers.

As a result of the "green revolution", grain yields have increased two to three times. Some developing countries have begun to meet their grain needs through their own production. Nevertheless, the "green revolution" did not justify the hopes placed on it. Firstly, because it has a pronounced focal character, and is widespread in Mexico and a number of countries in South and Southeast Asia. Secondly, it affected only large farms and companies, almost without changing the nature of production in the traditional, small-scale consumer sector.

Biotechnology is understood as a set of methods and techniques for the use of living organisms, biological products and biotechnical systems in the manufacturing sector. Its implementation in production allows: firstly, to increase the energy resources of mankind (obtaining energy from biomass both in a gaseous and in a liquid state). For example, there are millions of biogas generators in operation in India and China. Secondly, to develop mineral deposits using biotechnological methods (underground leaching of minerals, increasing the recovery of oil reservoirs with the help of microbes). Thirdly, increasing the productivity of agriculture by introducing genetic engineering methods in crop production and animal husbandry and protecting cultivated plants from pests, and domestic animals from diseases. Fourthly, obtaining new drugs for the needs of medicine and veterinary medicine. Fifth, the protection of the natural environment by biotechnological methods (bacterial wastewater treatment, utilization of industrial and municipal waste). In the modern world, the bioindustry is developing especially rapidly in the USA, Japan, and EU countries. In the United States alone, there are more than 1200 biotech companies that manufacture pharmaceutical products. New methods of prospecting for minerals, the introduction of modern mining equipment, new technologies and the integrated use of mineral raw materials increase the efficiency of its extraction and use.

The impact of scientific and technological progress on the world economy. Under the influence of scientific and technological progress in the modern world economy, the following changes are taking place. First, the growth of informatization and intellectualization of labor. The creation of computers of a new generation has made it possible to significantly increase the volume of their memory and the speed of operations performed by millions of times. This gradually leads to the fact that every individual, every enterprise and organization has the opportunity to receive any necessary information and knowledge for their life at any time. Secondly, the requirements for qualifications and for the general educational level of personnel employed in the economy are increasing. Today, the average period for renewal of equipment and technology has been reduced to 4-5 years, and in some industries to 2-3 years. The terms for training qualified workers have increased to 12-14 years. That is why the leading post-industrial countries of the world allocate huge funds for education.

Thirdly, the tightening of states and the level of development of technology and technology in different countries to the level of advanced. In the world, all countries in the development of technological innovations are divided into three groups. The first group includes about 18 countries of the world (USA, Japan, Sweden, France, Germany, Great Britain, Finland, etc.), where 15% of the world's population lives, but where practically all the latest know-how is created. The second group of countries, in which approximately 50% of the world's population lives, is capable of introducing these technologies into their production and consumption systems (Spain, Italy, Brazil, China, India, Czech Republic, etc.). The third group of countries, where about 1/3 of the world's population lives, are technologically backward, because they do not create their own latest technologies and do not introduce foreign ones.

Transfer of advanced forms and methods of organizing production to other countries. This happens through transnational and multinational corporations (TNCs, MNCs). They locate their production where it is most profitable. Thus, the well-known TNK IBM has branches in 80 countries of the world, Siemens in 52 countries, and so on.

Questions and tasks:

What is the difference between the concept of scientific and technological progress and the concept of scientific and technological revolution?
Explain the expression: "the scientific and technological revolution is a qualitatively new stage in the development of the productive forces." Why does it contribute to the accelerated development of countries?
What is the impact of scientific and technological progress on the international division of labor and the development of the world economy?
Give examples of countries in which, under the influence of scientific and technological progress, a different sectoral structure of the economy has developed?

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY

ORLOV STATE INSTITUTE

ECONOMY AND TRADE

Department of Theory of National and World Economy

Introduction to the world economy

Sectoral structure of the world economy

4. Agro-industrial complex in the world economy

1. General concept structures of the world economy

To understand the world economy, it is very important to know the structure of the world economy. The world economy is a complex system consisting of numerous, closely related macroeconomic elements. It is a dynamic system with a complex functional and territorial-production structure, including sectoral and inter-sectoral links, regions, complexes, enterprises and associations. The relationship between these elements represents the economic structure of the world economy. The structure of the world (national) economy Are the most important proportions in production and consumption gross product... The economic structure, its optimality is of great importance for sustainable and effective development the world economy. The purpose of any structuring is to show the relationship between the various links of the economic system.

The structure of the economy, both national and global, is a multifaceted concept, since the housekeeper can be structured based on a wide variety of criteria. The structure of the world economy consists of the following large substructures: sectoral, reproductive, territorial and socio-economic, functional.

1.Reproduction structure Is the ratio between different uses of industrial GDP.

Reproduction - continuous repetition of production cycles with constantly improving performance. The following parts are distinguished in the reproductive structure: consumption, accumulation and export - the main links of the reproductive structure. If 100% of GDP goes to consumption, then there can be no other links, which is a sign of significant distortions in the structure of the national economy, social turmoil, and growing tension. The optimal reproduction structure assumes the following proportions: consumption - 70%, accumulation - 25%, exports - 5%. Due to these savings (in in this case 25%) new investments are made in the economy, certain export-import relations are developing, and there is no social tension in the country.

2.Territorial structure - the ratio of the economies of different countries and territories.

Territorial structure describes how economic activity is distributed across a country's territory or among countries around the world.

3.Socio-economic structure - This is the relationship between different socio-economic structures.

Socio-economic structure is a specific type of economy, which is based on a special type of property. There are the following structures: clan-communal (people live in clans, communities and there is no private property); feudal (with the presence of feudal property); small-scale commodity (with a predominance of small shops, workshops, craft farms); capitalist (characterized by large-scale industrial production, private capital, monopolies).

4. Functional structure - This is the ratio of peaceful and military production.

The ratio of peaceful and military production is very important for the socio-economic development of any country. As world experience shows, the higher the proportion of military production, the lower the proportion of peaceful production and the worse the economic situation of a given country. War production in all cases is a deduction from the general welfare. The higher the proportion of military production, the poorer the country and the lower the standard of living of the population, all other things being equal. The optimal share of military production is 1-2% of GDP, the maximum is 6%. As spending on military production increases, its negative impact on the country's economy increases. A higher percentage of spending on the military-industrial complex leads the country to the militarization and degradation of peaceful production.

There are very few countries in history where military production exceeded 6% of GDP. A striking example of such an economy was the USSR, where the cost of military production by the end of the 80s. exceeded 25%. Today, significant military spending is a drag economic progress many developing countries. In the late 80s. expenditures on the military-industrial complex amounted to 6%, in the mid-90s. - 3.5%, at the end of the 90s. - 2.5% of the total GDP of these countries. At the same time, one of the unique factors of Japan's dynamic development is the constitutional limitation of defense spending. During the post-war period, Japan's defense spending did not exceed 1% of GDP.

5.Industry structure - This is the ratio between different sectors in the economy.

Sectoral structure of the economy - a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units, characterized by special conditions of production in the process of social division of labor and playing a specific role in expanded reproduction. In macroeconomic analysis, five main groups of industries are usually distinguished: industry, agriculture (agro-industrial complex), construction, production infrastructure, non-production infrastructure (services). Each of the named basic industries can be subdivided into enlarged industries, industries and types of production (for example, industry is subdivided into manufacturing and extractive industries).

Agriculture and extractive industries form primary industries; manufacturing and construction (using primary raw materials) - secondary industries; production and non-production infrastructure - tertiary sector.

The regularity of changes in the sectoral structure of the world economy is a gradual transition from a high share of agriculture, extractive industries, manufacturing industries to technically relatively simple industries, then from capital-intensive industries to knowledge-intensive industries based on high technologies. The ratio between the above sectors has been constantly changing in favor of the tertiary sector, in terms of their contribution to the creation of GDP and the share of employment of the population. Sectoral shifts at the macro level, if we consider them in a long historical framework, manifested themselves first in the rapid growth of “primary industries”, then “secondary”, and in the last period - “tertiary industries”. So, before the industrial revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries. in world production, the agrarian structure (primary sector) dominated, in which agriculture and related industries were the main source of material benefits. In the second half of the XIX century. - the first half of the twentieth century. in economically developed countries, an industrial structure of the economy has developed with the leading role of industry (secondary sector). The end of the twentieth century. - the beginning of the XXI century. characterized by an increase in the share of the tertiary sector. Currently, there is a tendency for the reduction of primary industries in the world economy, the share of secondary industries is decreasing somewhat more slowly, and the share of the tertiary sector has a steady upward trend.

Today, the share of the service sector (including trade, transport and communications) has grown significantly in the economy of developed countries. It accounts for more than 80% in the USA, up to 80% in England, more than 70% in Japan, about 70% in Canada, more than 60% in Germany, France, Italy, and the Benelux countries. In the structure of the GDP of these countries, the share of agriculture has been steadily decreasing: from 7% in the 60s. up to 4% in the 80s. and 3% at the end of the 90s. The share of industry today is 25-30% of the GDP of developed countries. Along with the noted long-term trend, these shifts are also explained by the fact that under the influence of scientific and technological progress, many types of activities were spun off from agriculture and separated into special industries and services. At the same time, there is an integration of agriculture, industry and trade into the agro-industrial complex, which is a new type of production ties.

The newly industrialized and post-socialist countries are at approximately the same level of economic development both in terms of GDP per capita and in terms of the sectoral structure of the economy. In these two groups of countries, a relatively high share of agriculture (6-10% of GDP) remains, which is gradually approaching the level of developed countries (2-4%). The share of industry in the GDP of both groups of countries (25-40%) is at the level of post-industrial countries and even exceeds it. This is due to the relatively low level of the service sector (45-55% of GDP).

Table 1 - Approximate sectoral structure of the US and Russian economies

Most of the developing countries are characterized by an agricultural and raw material orientation of economic development. In the sectoral structure of the GDP of developing countries, the share of agriculture is still high (20-35%). The share of industry in the GDP of these countries is most often small (10-25%), and it is higher mainly in countries - exporters of mineral raw materials and fuels, while the share of manufacturing industry fluctuates within 5-15%.

2. Sectoral structure of modern industry

Industry is the main, leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of the gross domestic product and national income is created. For example, in modern conditions the share of industry in the total GDP of developed countries is about 40%. The leading role of industry is also due to the fact that the degree of satisfaction of society's needs for high-quality products, the provision of technical re-equipment and the intensification of production depend on the success in its development.

Modern industry consists of many independent branches of production, each of which includes a large group of related enterprises and production associations, located in some cases at a considerable territorial distance from each other. Industry Is a set of enterprises characterized by the unity of the economic purpose of the products manufactured, the homogeneity of the processed raw materials, the commonality of technological processes and technical base, and professional personnel. Sectoral structure of industry characterized by the composition of industries, their quantitative ratios, expressing certain production relationships between them.

Types of industries:

1. Functional purpose of the product:

Fuel and energy industry (FEC);

Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy;

Mechanical engineering;

Chemical industry;

Timber and woodworking industry;

Light industry (textile, clothing, footwear, etc.);

Food industry.

2. The nature of the impact on the subject of labor:

Extractive industry;

Manufacturing industry.

Extractive industries are engaged in the extraction of natural raw materials (coal, peat, natural gas, etc.); processing industries are engaged in the processing of products from the extractive industries or agriculture (metallurgy, mechanical engineering, food and mechanical engineering). The manufacturing industry accounts for ¾ of the world's industrial products, in developed countries - more than 80%, in developing countries - about 50%.

3. Economic purpose of products:

Industries producing means of production;

Industries producing consumer goods.

4. Time of emergence of the industry:

Old industries (coal, iron ore, metallurgy, shipbuilding, textile, etc.);

New industries (automotive, plastics and chemical fibers, electrical engineering, etc.);

The latest industries (microelectronics, computing, etc.).

The sectoral structure of the industry is determined by the following indicators:

The share of the industry in the total volume of production.

The number of people employed in the industry.

When determining the sectoral structure of industry in terms of the number of employees, it should be borne in mind that in this case a slightly different picture will be obtained, which does not quite accurately characterize the actual share of sectors in general industrial production: the share of more labor-intensive sectors will be overestimated, and, conversely, the share of sectors with a high level of mechanization and automation will be underestimated.

The value of the basic production assets of the industry.

The sectoral structure, calculated using the indicator of the value of fixed assets, mainly reflects the production and technical level of industries.

3. Fuel and energy complex in the world economy

The fuel and energy complex (FEC) plays a crucial role in the world economy, because without its products, the functioning of all industries without exception is impossible. The fuel and energy complex consists of the fuel (oil, coal and gas) industry and energy. The fuel and energy complex is a set of industries that supply the economy with energy resources and are located at the junction of the mining and manufacturing industries.

The main sources of energy in the modern world are oil, coal, natural gas, hydro and nuclear energy. The share of all other energy sources taken together (firewood, peat, solar energy, wind, ebb and flow, geothermal energy) is small. True, in some countries these sources are of significant importance in energy supply: firewood - in Finland, hot thermal springs - in Iceland, oil shale - in Estonia. The structure of consumption of primary energy resources (PER) in the world economy is as follows: oil - 40%, solid fuel - 28%, gas - 22%, nuclear energy - 9%, hydroelectric power plants and other unconventional sources - 1%. In developed countries, the share of oil in the total PER consumption is 45%; coal - 26%, gas - 23%. The growth in natural gas consumption, especially in power generation, is stimulated by the fact that it is an environmentally friendly fuel. The share of nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants and other sources is 6%. In developing countries, coal retains the leading role in the consumption of energy resources - 42%; the second place is occupied by oil - 39%; the third place belongs to gas - 14%. The share of energy from nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants and non-renewable sources is 5%. In Russia, the share of gas (49%) in the consumption structure has been rapidly growing in recent years, with a noticeable decrease in the share of oil (30%) and coal (17%). The share of nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants and other sources in the consumption structure is 4%. According to experts, in the period up to 2015. the total consumption of all types of PER in the world may increase by about 1.6-1.7 times. The share of energy from nuclear power plants, hydroelectric power plants and others will not exceed 6%. At the same time, oil will retain the leading role, coal will remain in second place and gas in third place. Nevertheless, the share of oil in the structure of consumption will fall from 39.4% to 35%, while the share of gas will rise from 23.7% to 28%. The share of coal will slightly decrease from 31.7% to 31.2%.

Geographically, energy consumption in the world economy is as follows: developed countries - 53%; developing countries - 29%; CIS and Eastern European countries - 18%.

Oil industry. Oil occupies a leading position in the global fuel market. The largest oil producers are Saudi Arabia, Russia, USA, Iran. OPEC member countries (Algeria, Venezuela, Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Qatar, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, UAE, Saudi Arabia - only 11 states) account for 42% of the oil produced. The main exporters of oil to the world market, apart from the OPEC member countries (65%), are Russia, Great Britain, Mexico and Iraq, the largest importers are the USA, China, Japan, and the EU countries.

The territorial gap between the most important regions of oil production and processing determines the huge scale of oil transportation by sea. Transportation is carried out in oil tankers (tankers), by rail and oil pipelines. The bulk of the oil refining capacity is concentrated in developed countries, including the United States - 21%, Western Europe - 20%, Japan - 6%. Russia accounts for 17%. The main directions of its international sea freight flows begin in the ports of the Persian Gulf and go to Western Europe and Japan. The most important cargo flows include the Caribbean Sea (Venezuela, Mexico) - the USA, Southeast Asia - Japan, North Africa - Western Europe.

Gas industry. World gas production is constantly growing. Very favorable conditions have developed for the growth of gas consumption: low cost of production, the presence of significant explored reserves, ease of use and transportation, and environmental friendliness. The use of gas for electricity generation is especially active in developed countries. The main gas producers are Russia (22%), the USA (19%), OPEC countries (13%) and Western Europe (12%). The largest gas producers are also its consumers, so only about 15% is exported. The largest gas exporters are Russia (about 30% of world exports), the Netherlands, Norway and Algeria. The main gas importers are the USA, Japan, Germany, France and Italy.

Coal industry. World coal production began to decline in the mid-90s. The largest coal-mining countries include China, USA, Australia, South Africa, Russia. These states are also the largest exporters of coal, and importers are Japan, South Korea, and the EU countries.

Power engineering... Electricity generation has increased in recent years. The largest electricity producers are the United States, Japan, China, Russia, Canada, Germany and France. Developed countries account for about 65% of all production, developing countries - 22%, countries with economies in transition - 13%. In Russia and other CIS countries, electricity generation has decreased. In the structure of world electricity production, 62% is accounted for by thermal power plants, 20% - by hydroelectric power plants, 17% - by nuclear power plants and 1% - by the use of alternative energy sources (geothermal, tidal, solar, wind power plants). The production and consumption of electricity is growing faster than the total production and consumption of primary energy resources.

Under the conditions of scientific and technological progress, the role of atomic energy in the fuel and energy balance of the world economy has grown (the development of this source is constrained by its insecurity for the environment). Atomic energy is becoming an increasingly important source of fuel and energy resources. Currently, nuclear power plants operate in 32 countries (about 140 nuclear reactors). Nuclear power is well equipped with raw materials (uranium). The main producers of uranium are Canada, Australia, Namibia, USA, Russia. Nuclear engineering firms do not expect a significant increase in orders for equipment for new nuclear power plants (NPPs) - at least in the next 10 years. The lack of funds, due to the extremely low inflow of orders after the Chernobyl accident, now forces the manufacturers of nuclear power equipment to work in the regime of the strictest economy and constant increase in the efficiency of operations. The current situation very different from the 70s, when the world's nuclear industry was fully utilized. In North America and Western Europe, the influx of orders for new nuclear power plants is practically zero. The same situation has developed with the construction of new nuclear power plants in Russia. At the same time, there is a significant need for the modernization of existing stations, including in the countries of Eastern Europe. Only in East Asia, in particular the Republic of Korea, China and Taiwan, is there a real interest in building new nuclear power plants, but the development of the corresponding projects is time-consuming and often delayed due to increasing pressure from environmentalists. The cost of electricity at nuclear power plants is 20% lower than that of coal-fired TPPs, and 2.5 times lower than that of fuel oil, and the specific capital investment is twice as high. By the end of the twentieth century, according to some calculations, the share of electricity generated at nuclear power plants will be 15%, and by the end of 2020-2030 it will be 15%. - 30%, which will require a significant increase in uranium production.

Non-traditional (alternative) sources of electricity account for about 1% of the world's production. These include: geothermal power plants (USA, Philippines, Iceland), tidal power plants (France, UK, Canada, Russia, India), solar power plants and wind power plants (Germany, Denmark, USA). Unlike nuclear energy, the use of renewable energy sources finds full support from the public in all industrialized countries due to their environmental friendliness and safety. For a number of technologies for obtaining renewable energy sources, significant progress has taken place over the past 10 years, and some of them are in the stage of commercialization and entering the wide energy market. This primarily applies to the development of solar power plants, which can be competitive in the production of electricity in remote areas, as well as to cover peak loads. Wind, geothermal and biomass energy can contribute to some extent. However, to enter the wide energy market of the latter, it is necessary to translate the achievements of NIOCP in this area on a practical footing, eliminate existing barriers in the renewable energy market, and focus R&D efforts on unlocking the full potential of new technologies in this area.

... Agro-industrial complex in the world economy

Agriculture is the second leading branch of material production. World agriculture employs about 1.1 billion people. economically active population (41% of the economically active population of the world), including in developed countries - only 22 million people, in countries with economies in transition - 32 million people, in China - 450 million and in developing countries - about 600 million people The general level of development of the country's economy is judged by the share of people employed in this industry among the EAN or by the share of agricultural products in GDP. On the basis of these indicators, agricultural, industrial, industrial-agrarian, post-industrial countries are distinguished. Once upon a time, the share of agriculture in the GDP of many countries of the world was not only predominant, but reaching such values as 60-80%. Today, in developed countries, the share of agricultural products in GDP ranges from 2-10%, and the employment rate is 2-5%. For example, in the United States, the share of agriculture is 1% of GDP, 4% of the EAP is involved in the industry, while the country produces such a gigantic volume of agricultural products that allows meeting the needs of not only almost 300 million Americans, but also another 100 million people. abroad, since the United States is a major exporter of products. In Russia, the share of agriculture in GDP is 5%, and the share of those employed in the industry is 14%.

In the 60-70s of the twentieth century. in world agriculture (first in the most developed capitalist countries, primarily in the United States), a technological shift began, which was called "agro-industrial integration." Agro-industrial integration is a new form of business association, different from associations in industry and services, its main feature is its intersectoral nature, in that it means an organized and commercial association of enterprises in two significantly different sectors of the economy - industry and agriculture. Agro-industrial integration - organizational and commercial association of enterprises of two significantly different sectors of the economy - industry and agriculture. To a certain extent, agro-industrial integration overcomes the specific nature of agricultural production (exposure to natural and climatic factors, the difficulty of preliminary planning, forecasting the weight and volume of vegetables, fruits and other agricultural products), including agriculture in the general industrial production process. Integration reflects the actually established interdependence of agricultural and industrial production in society and at the same time further enhances this interdependence, creating an economic, commercial mechanism that stably provides industry with agricultural raw materials.

Agro-industrial integration logically and historically leads to the creation of an agro-industrial complex. Agro-industrial complex (AIC) - this is a unified system of agricultural and industrial enterprises and industries that has developed in social production, welded by integration, i.e. close, stable, long-term industrial and commercial ties based on property relations. The process of developing agro-industrial integration and the formation of the agro-industrial complex has advanced far in industrialized countries, primarily in the United States. To an immeasurably lesser extent, it is observed in the developing world, where, along with general trends and forms of its manifestation, there appear specific features and forms associated with a significant lag in the agro-industrial sphere of the liberated countries and their economic dependence from the West.

The agro-industrial complex is divided into three areas (groups of industries):

1. Agriculture, consisting of crop and livestock production.

This is the main link in the agro-industrial complex, which provides ½ of the agro-industrial complex products, which concentrated 2/3 of its basic production assets and labor force.

2. Industries engaged in processing and bringing agricultural products to the consumer.

The third area includes the food industry; refrigeration, storage, specialized transport facilities; trade and other enterprises and organizations, public catering.

3. Industries producing means of production for agriculture.

This area includes tractor and agricultural engineering; mechanical engineering for Food Industry; agrochemistry (production of mineral fertilizers and microbiological industry); feed industry; agricultural maintenance system; land reclamation and rural construction.

In developed countries, the share of agriculture in the agro-industrial complex occupies a relatively smaller place both in terms of the cost of production and the number of people employed in this area. In developed countries, the share of the second sector of the agro-industrial complex is steadily growing and the share of agricultural production itself is decreasing. As a result, US agriculture provides 1% of GDP, it employs 4% of the workforce, while the entire agro-industrial complex supplies 18% of GDP and employs about 20% of the country's workforce. In countries with economies in transition, the share of agriculture in the structure of the agro-industrial complex is significantly higher than in Western countries, which reflects the weak development of processing of agricultural raw materials, including the food industry. Thus, the agro-industrial complex of Russia employs about 30% of workers, including agriculture - 14%, and the share of this industry in the GDP is 7%. In developing countries, traditional consumer (or small-scale) agriculture predominates. The traditional sector is represented by hundreds of millions of small plots, the production of which is mainly enough to feed a peasant family. Primitive agriculture prevails, in which a wooden plow and a hoe remain the main tools for cultivating the soil. At least 20 million families are engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture. At the same time, in many developing countries, a high-value sector has developed, represented by plantations of some tropical and subtropical crops (coffee, cocoa, tea, natural rubber, bananas, sugar cane, bananas, etc.), but the plantation sector is more export-oriented than domestic market.

Agriculture in almost all countries of the world consists of two large industries: crop production (production of field crops (rice, rye, corn, beans, peas) and fruit crops (viticulture, horticulture, vegetable growing, tropical crops production)) and livestock (cattle breeding, pig breeding, sheep breeding, poultry breeding, horse breeding, camel breeding, etc.) ... In the structure of the world economy, the shares of crop and livestock production are approximately equal, but livestock production is predominant in countries with developed economies, and crop production - in developing ones. The relationship between these industries is changing the benefits of animal husbandry. So, in Sweden and Finland, livestock accounts for 75-80% of gross agricultural output, in the USA - about 55%, in France - 53%. The exception is the Mediterranean countries, including Italy, where this industry produces 40-42% of agricultural products, which is largely determined by the insufficiently favorable natural conditions for animal husbandry.

5. Transport complex to the world economy

Transport is a special area of production that is included in the tertiary sector. Unlike industry and agriculture, it does not create a new product, does not change its properties and quality. The product of transport is the movement of goods and people in space, a change in their location. The share of transport in GDP of countries the world ranges from 6% to 15%. Over 100 billion tons of cargo and more than 1 trillion tons of cargo are transported annually in the world by all modes of transport. passengers. More than 650 million vehicles, 40 thousand sea vessels, 10 thousand scheduled aircrafts, 200 thousand locomotives are involved in these transportation. Depending on the way in which the movement of passengers and goods is carried out, there are railway, road, water, air, pipeline and electronic modes of transport. The level of development of the country's transport system is assessed using the following main indicators: the length (length) of the transport network, its density (defined as the ratio of the length of the paths to a unit area of the territory or to the number of inhabitants), the share of this or that transport in the total freight and passenger turnover. The role of individual modes of transport in a particular country is largely determined by its geographic characteristics. For example, in island countries (such as Japan), sea transport occupies a large place in cargo turnover and passenger traffic. In countries with a large territory (USA, Canada), the role of rail transport is relatively large, and in countries with short distances and a well-developed territory, automobile transport dominates (Western Europe).

World transport system Is a collection of all communication routes, transport enterprises and Vehicle world economy. It was formed in the twentieth century. It is possible to distinguish transport systems of economically developed, developing countries and regional transport systems. In economically developed countries, transport has a ramified structure and is represented by almost all of its types. In developing countries, transport is a lagging sector of the economy: it is represented by 1-2 types (in 30 countries of the world there are no railways (for example, Nepal, Afghanistan, Niger), a low technical level (steam traction is preserved on the railways, horse-drawn transport is used, porters services) ...

The regional transportation system of North America has reached the highest level of development. It accounts for about 30% of the total length of world communications, and for such types of transport as road and pipeline, this share is even higher. North America also ranks first in terms of freight turnover for most types of transport. The regional transport system of foreign Europe is inferior to the North American system in terms of transportation distance, but surpasses it in terms of network density and frequency of movement. The regional system of the CIS member states accounts for only 10% of the global transport network, but it ranks first in the world in terms of freight turnover.

The railways of the USA, Russia, China, India and Australia have the greatest length. In a number of developed countries (Japan, France, Italy, Germany, USA) high-speed lines operate, where the speed of trains reaches more than 200 km / h. Russia ranks first in the world in terms of the length of electrified roads. Sea transport is the cheapest form of transport. It provides 2/3 of the world's foreign trade traffic. One third of all ships sail under the flags of developed countries, another third - under the “cheap” flags of developing countries (in the countries of the “cheap” flag there are lower taxes on vessel registration, cheaper crew hiring, etc.), but belongs to shipping companies of developed countries. Air transport is the fastest and most expensive form of transport. The largest aircraft fleet is concentrated in the USA, Canada, France, Australia and Germany.

The structure of the network of communication lines will undergo significant changes. There is not so much a quantitative, but a qualitative change in the world's transport network: the railway network is shrinking, the length of highways with a hard surface will increase and the network of pipelines large diameter... In the United States and Western Europe, the rail network has contracted in recent years due to competition from road transport. The length of inactive and unprofitable railway lines and sections will be reduced. At the same time, it is planned to build a number of new, mainly high-speed, lines. Expansion of work on the electrification of railways is expected.

Leading trends in the development of the world transport system:

A container transportation system is being formed (about 40% of cargo is transported in them).

Intermodal transportation (in which two or more modes of transport are involved) is becoming widespread.

These shipments are characterized by precise observance of the timing and rhythm of the delivery of goods.

Creation of transport corridors (combine several types of transport in certain directions at once for transporting goods through the territory of several countries).

Nine transport corridors have been created in Europe. Two transport corridors pass through the territory of Russia: Berlin - Warsaw - Minsk - Moscow - Nizhny Novgorod(MTK No. 1); Berlin - Warsaw - Minsk - Moscow - Nizhny Novgorod (No. 2); Helsinki - St. Petersburg - Moscow - Kiev - Chisinau - Bucharest (No. 9). Thus, the carriage of goods between different countries more and more turns into a single technological process, and it is often carried out on the basis of a single transport document, with constant tracking of the progress of the cargo all the way from the sender to the recipient.

Tests

1. The general pattern of changes in the sectoral structure of the world economy at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. a decrease in the share of agriculture in GDP and an increase in the share of the extractive industry.

2. The functional structure of the economy is the ratio between the various uses of industrial GDP.

3. In the economy of developed countries at the stage post-industrial development the share of the service sector (tertiary sector) has significantly increased and the share of the sphere of material production (primary and secondary sectors) has decreased.

4. When determining the sectoral structure of an industry, the leading indicator is the number of people employed in the industry.

5. Industry is the main, leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of the gross domestic product is created.

6. In the structure of world electricity production, nuclear power plants account for about 17%.

7. In the next decade, a significant increase in orders for the construction of nuclear power plants is expected.

8. In the structure of agriculture, the largest share belongs to animal husbandry.

9. Agro-industrial integration - organizational and commercial association of enterprises of two significantly different sectors of the economy - industry and agriculture.

10. In countries with economies in transition, the share of agriculture proper in the structure of the agro-industrial complex is significantly lower than in economically developed countries.

11. In developing countries, transport is represented by almost all of its types.

12. In recent years, there has been a reduction in the railway network due to competition from road transport.

Differences

1. The most optimal reproductive structure is characterized by:

A. Consumption accounts for 50% of GDP, accumulation 25%, exports 25%.

B. Consumption is 90% of GDP, accumulation is 5%, export is 5%.

C. Consumption accounts for 70% of GDP, accumulation 25%, exports 5%.

D. Consumption is 70% of GDP, accumulation is 5%, export is 25%.

2. The following indicator can be judged most objectively about the sectoral structure of the economy:

A. The number of people employed in the industry.

B. The share of the industry in the total volume of production.

B. The value of the basic production assets of the industry.

D. The level of social division of labor, the development of specialization and production cooperation.

3. The sectoral structure of the world industry at the present stage is characterized by the following trends:

A. Decrease in the share of extractive industries.

B. Increase in the share and importance of the extractive industries.

B. Decrease in the share of the service sector.

D. The transition from material-intensive industries to capital-intensive.

4. In terms of priority, the structure of consumption of primary energy resources (PER) in Russia is as follows:

A. Gas, oil, coal, nuclear power plants and hydroelectric power plants.

B. Oil, coal, gas, nuclear power plants and hydroelectric power plants.

B. Oil, gas, coal, nuclear power plants and hydroelectric power plants.

D. Coal, oil, gas, nuclear power plants and hydroelectric power plants.

5. In the structure of the agro-industrial complex of developing countries, the largest share belongs to:

A. Industries supplying means of production for agriculture.

B. Agriculture proper.

B. Industries engaged in the processing of agricultural products.

D. The shares of all branches of the agro-industrial complex are equal.

6. In most developed countries, in the total volume of agricultural production, livestock accounts for:

A. less than 40%.

D. All answers are wrong.

7. The "primary sectors" of the economy include:

A. Agriculture and extractive industries.

B. Industry and construction.

B. Service industry.

D. Agriculture and construction.

8. The most important trend in the change in the structure of the GDP of industrialized countries at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. was the transformation of the _______________ sphere into the predominant part of their economy:

A. Production.

B. Non-production.

B. Extractive.

G. Processing.

9. Today, _________ of the international transport corridor (ITC) passes through the territory of Russia.

At four.

10. The cheapest form of transport is:

A. Air.

B. Railway.

V. Morskoy.

G. Automobile.

11. New industrial and post-socialist countries are at the ______________ level of economic development in terms of the sectoral structure of the economy:

A. Miscellaneous.

B. Approximately the same.

B. Comparable.

D. Not comparable.

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Otrade structure of the world economy

1. General concept of the industry structure

The structure of the economy is a multifaceted concept that shows the relationship between various elements of the economic system. Usually, social, sectoral, reproduction, regional (territorial) and foreign trade structures are distinguished.

Sectoral structure of the economy v broad understanding is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units, characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor and playing a specific role in the process of expanded reproduction.

Sectoral shifts at the macro level, if viewed in a historical context, manifested themselves first in the rapid growth of "primary industries" (agriculture and mining), then "secondary" (industry and construction), and in the last services).

In world practice, the basis for the formation of the structural elements of the economy is the International Standard Industrial Classification of all types of economic activity and the International Standard Classification of Occupations, which are components of the System of National Accounts (SNA). The SNA provides for the use of two types of classifications: by industry and by sector. Grouping by industry provides a characterization of the sectoral structure of the economy, allows you to establish the contribution of each industry to the creation of GNP, to trace inter-industry relations and proportions. A special place in the SNA is occupied by inter-sectoral balances, which is due to the wide opportunities that they present for analyzing the dynamics and structure of the economy, the main cost and natural-material proportions, conducting international comparisons, and performing forecast economic calculations. Depending on the goals economic analysis interindustry balances can include from several tens to several thousand industries. sectoral structure industry world

The basic industries for the development of input-output balances are industry, agriculture, construction, trade, transport and communications, and service industries. Each industry, in turn, is divided into the so-called enlarged industries, industries and types of production. Each of the enlarged industries includes homogeneous industries that are specialized in the production of certain types of products.

Each production is characterized by a certain nomenclature of manufactured products. Differentiated classification, which is based on the type of product and the type of production with after-

by combining them into branches, enlarged branches and branches of the economy, facilitates the continuity of the classification in the context of the developing international division of labor.

2. Industrystructure of modern industry

Industry is the leading branch of material production, which creates the majority of GDP and national income. In modern conditions, the share of industry in the total GDP of developed countries is about 40%.

Modern industry consists of many independent branches of production, related enterprises and production associations, located in some cases at a considerable distance from each other. The sectoral structure of industry is characterized by the composition of sectors, their quantitative ratios, expressing certain production relationships between them. In the process of statistical accounting and analysis, the sectoral structure of industry is usually determined by finding the share of sectors in the total volume of production, the number of employees and the value of fixed assets of the industry.

The indicator of the volume of production allows one to more objectively judge not only the ratio of industries, but also their interrelationships, the dynamics of the sectoral structure of industry. Determining the sectoral structure of industry in terms of the number of employees gives a slightly different picture, which does not quite accurately reflect the actual share of industries in general industrial production: the share of more labor-intensive industries will be overestimated, and the share of industries with a high level of mechanization and automation will be underestimated. The sectoral structure, calculated using the indicator of the value of fixed assets, mainly reflects the production and technical level of industries.

The sectoral structure of industry reflects the level of industrial development of the country and its economic independence, the degree of technical equipment of the industry and the leading role of this industry in the economy as a whole. The progressiveness of the structure of industry is judged both by the composition and specific weight of the industries included in the industry, and by the extent to which the most progressive industries are represented and developed in this industry.

The interrelationships of industries, the proportions that have developed between them, are due to the method of production, as well as the cumulative action on its basis of many other factors that determine changes in the sectoral structure of industry. These factors include:

1. Scientific and technological progress and the degree of implementation of its results in production.

2. The level of social division of labor, the development of specialization and cooperation of production.

3. Growth in the material needs of the population.

4. Socio-historical conditions in which industry is developing.

5. Natural resources country.

Grouping by the nature of the impact on the subject of labor divides the entire industry into extractive and manufacturing industries. The mining industry includes industries in which the process of extracting raw materials and fuel from the earth's interior, forests and water bodies (coal, timber, etc.) is carried out. The manufacturing group includes industries that process raw materials. Depending on the source of raw materials, the processing industry is divided into industries processing raw materials of industrial origin (production of ferrous and non-ferrous metals, etc.), and industries processing agricultural raw materials (meat, sugar, cotton, etc.).

The current stage of economic development of the leading countries of the world is characterized by major shifts in the structure of the economy, which will certainly lead to new intersectoral and reproduction proportions. Changes in the prevailing proportions in the economy went in two directions:

firstly, reconstruction and modernization of traditional leading sectors of the economy,

secondly, the change of generations of products manufactured in the sector of new knowledge-intensive industries.

At the same time, the leading branch of material production remains industry and, above all, mechanical engineering, where scientific and technical achievements are accumulated.

In general, over the past decades in industrially developed countries, the general pattern of sectoral shifts consists in a noticeable decrease in the share of raw materials and agriculture, in the technical modernization of industry and the rapid growth of service industries. The most radical changes are taking place at the level of sub-sectors, within which science-intensive industries have the highest dynamics.

3. Prospects for the development of the main industrial complexes of the world economy

Fuel and energy complex (FEC)

The fuel and energy complex industries are capital-intensive industries. In industrialized countries, where all its branches are represented, usually the main capital investments within the range of up to 85% are in the oil and gas industry and the electric power industry (approximately in equal shares) and up to 15% in the oil refining and coal industry. Significant impact on investment process in the fuel and energy complex as a whole, they provide investments in the oil industry.

According to the cyclical nature of development oil industry there are also changes in investment not only in this industry, but also in the fuel and energy complex as a whole.

Following the oil and gas industry, in the next decade, large investments will be made in the electric power industry. Annual capital investments in this industry will be in the range of $ 100 billion per year (these investments are commensurate with investments in the oil and gas industry).

In the future until 2015, according to experts' forecasts, the average annual growth rate of electricity generation in the world will be about 2.7%, however, there are significant differences in the rates of development of the electric power industry in industrialized and developing countries, and in the ratio of the use of various types of fuel for generating electricity. ... In industrialized countries, the rate of increase in electricity generation is projected at about 2%. Wherein greatest growth The installed capacity will occur at gas-fired power plants (an annual increase of up to 4.9%), and the average annual increase in the capacity of coal-fired power plants will be about 1.3% per year. In developing countries, however, the basic needs for electricity will, apparently, be met by increasing the construction of thermal power plants on coal. The largest consumer of electricity is the United States: it accounts for 42% of the world's electricity consumption (!).

Atomic energy is becoming an increasingly important source of fuel and energy resources. Currently, there are about 140 nuclear reactors operating in the world. Their share in the total volume of electricity production in the world remains at the level of 10-11%. Nuclear engineering firms do not expect an increase in orders for equipment for new nuclear power plants (NPPs), at least in the next 10 years. After the Chernobyl accident in 1986, the influx of orders has become extremely small.

However, in general, the dependence of the energy sector in a number of countries of the world on nuclear power plants is very significant. So, in 1995, the share of nuclear power plants in the total electricity generation was (in%): in Lithuania - 76.4; France - 75.3; Belgium - 55.8; Sweden - 51.1; Slovakia - 49.1; Bulgaria - 45.6; Hungary - 43.7; Slovenia, Switzerland, Republic of Korea, Spain - 34.0 on average; Japan - 30.7; Germany - 29.3; Great Britain - 25.8; USA - 22.0; Russia - 11.4. The cost of electricity at nuclear power plants is 20% lower than at TPPs fueled by coal, and 2.5 times lower than those fueled by fuel oil. e. By 2020-2030, the share of electricity generated at nuclear power plants, according to calculations, will be 30%, and this will require a significant increase in uranium production.

Noting the trend towards a reduction in the share of raw materials in world trade, it should be noted that this is not an absolute, but a relative decrease in the export of these goods. Oil occupies the leading position in the group of fuel and raw materials. However, in recent years, due to structural shifts in the economy, there has been a decrease in oil consumption. In recent years, international trade in natural gas has developed rapidly.

The dependence of industrialized countries on oil imports, including from the OPEC member countries, remains high: almost 100% from Japan, 95% from France and Germany, 40% from the United States.

Russia has traditionally played an important role in the world export of fuel and energy products, especially oil and natural gas. Energy exports now account for over 50% of all foreign exchange earnings in the Russian Federation from foreign trade.

Mechanical engineering

In the 90s, the investment process in the machine-building complex of developed countries was characterized by a further increase in investment in knowledge-intensive industries, an increase in the share of spending on integrated automation of production processes, and a sharp decline in investment in the expansion of traditional industries.

Automation to one degree or another will cover all existing types of production in mechanical engineering. Since the second half of the 90s, the accelerated development of automated assembly began, which means a new stage in the creation of computerized integrated production facilities. The number of machine tools in the engineering industries of industrially developed countries will gradually decrease with a simultaneous increase in its production capacity and technical and economic efficiency.

By 2015, the US engineering complex will account for about 40-50% of the total annual gross capital investment in the manufacturing industry (44% in 1985). The United States occupies a leading position in the world in terms of the scale of production of engineering products. The United States accounts for about 45% of the production capacity of engineering enterprises in developed countries, while the Federal Republic of Germany, France, Great Britain and Italy - 36%, Japan - 19%.

A factor that somewhat restrains the further increase in the share of mechanical engineering in the manufacturing industry of all these countries is the continuing separation from mechanical engineering into the service sector, the industrial infrastructure of such functions as programming and maintenance of electronic computers and computer-aided design and management; design of complex production systems and local communication networks; rendering of services in engineering, leasing, personnel training; consulting services, etc.

Among the engineering industries at the center of modern state industrial policy in the countries under consideration are the aerospace industry (ARKP), microelectronics and the automotive industry.

State regulation of these industries is carried out in two main directions: in the direction of stimulating the innovation process and through the implementation of various measures, including protectionist ones, in order to facilitate competition conditions for national firms in the domestic and foreign markets.

Currently, ARKP and electrical (including electronics) industry accounts for 44% and 28%, respectively, in the United States, 25% in Japan (for electrical engineering), in Germany - 47% and 29%, in France - 50% and 43%. in the UK - 45% and 40%, in Italy - 30% (for each industry) of the total government spending for R&D in the manufacturing industry.

As an alternative to a narrowly nationalized approach to public policy in mechanical engineering, it is almost universally considered to expand support for intensive cooperation between firms. This process has already gained momentum - for example, cooperation in microelectronics between the United States and Japan.

The development of the machine-building complex is organically linked with the intensification of research activities. R&D intensification is due to a reduction in life cycle goods, increased competition, complication of scientific projects. Currently, the United States spends more on R&D in mechanical engineering than Japan, Germany, and Great Britain combined. Japan is rapidly increasing its scientific and technological potential. Back in the mid-70s, it was estimated at 30% of the American level, then in the mid-90s it reached 41%.

More than 80% of the world trade in machinery and equipment occurs in industrialized countries. The economic expansion of industrially developed countries is especially clearly manifested in the encouragement on the part of state bodies of machine-building monopolies, investing their capital in the creation of subsidiaries and branches in the territories of developing countries.

The share of Russia in the world export of machinery and equipment is now less than 1%, and in the total volume of Russian export of machinery and equipment to the industrially developed countries of the West, the share of machinery and equipment is estimated at only 2-2.5%. For well-known reasons, in the near future, in all likelihood, a significant increase in the share of exports of machinery and equipment in its total volume will not occur.

Agro-industrial complex (AIC)

Agro-industrial integration is a new form of business combination, the main feature of which is its cross-sectoral nature, in that it means an organized and commercial amalgamation of enterprises in two significantly different sectors of the economy - industry and agriculture.

As part of the agro-industrial complex, there are three areas:

1. Sectors of industry supplying means of production for agriculture and related industries, as well as providing production and technical services to agriculture.

2. The actual agriculture.

3. Industries engaged in processing and bringing agricultural products to the consumer (procurement, processing, storage, transportation, sale).

The process of the development of agro-industrial integration and the formation of the agro-industrial complex has advanced far in industrialized countries and, above all, in the United States. The factor of intensification of agricultural production in recent decades continued to be decisive in relation to the scale of gross grain production in the group of industrialized countries. Grain farms, like agriculture as a whole, have become an integral part of the agro-industrial complex, in which direct agricultural production is closely combined with the processing, storage and final sale of products, as well as with providing the farm with the means of production. The intensive path of development of grain production in the world will continue to prevail, because only this path can lead to a softening of the crisis in the supply of food to the constantly growing population of the planet.

At the same time, archaic forms of agriculture and land use remained in many developing countries, and the implementation of progressive agrarian reforms was delayed.

With a significant increase in gross grain production in general in industrialized countries and developing countries in the last twenty years, the imbalance in grain farming continued to deepen, expressed in a growing and multidirectional gap between production and consumption in each of these groups of countries. At the same time, measures were taken in the United States to limit grain production.

If in the early 1980s industrialized countries were net exporters of food, by the mid-1990s their imports began to exceed exports. Developing countries are traditionally large net exporters of food products.

The largest food exporters are the USA, EU countries, Canada, Australia, Brazil, China; the largest importers are Japan, USA, EU countries, Russia. However, in fairness, it should be mentioned that according to the International Service for Agrobiotechnology, the area under transgenic crops in the United States is 72%, in Argentina - 17%, in Canada - 10% of the total area occupied by agricultural crops.

The state of the food market in Russia in the last 10 years was determined by the ongoing crisis in agriculture and the food industry and, against this background, the growth in the volume and cost of imports of food products and raw materials for their production (this is especially typical for the European part of the Russian Federation).

Transport complex

Financing the transport complex in industrialized countries is traditionally one of the priority functions of the state, because transport, along with energy and communications, is the most important basis for the normal operation of production and the social sphere in the state.

In the long term, in countries with market economy further development of NTP for transport is expected. e. The structure of the network of communications will undergo significant changes. The length of inactive and unprofitable railway lines and sections will be reduced. At the same time, it is planned to build a number of new, mainly high-speed, lines. Work on the electrification of railways will increase. The length of paved roads will increase. The number of airports will increase, the length of gas and oil pipelines will increase. In river and sea transport, hydrotechnical works are ahead, and the reconstruction of ports is expected.

World trade forms large flows of commodity masses between countries, regions, continents. And it is transport that ensures the movement of goods (cargo) and people (passengers) between two or more countries.

The most versatile and effective means of delivering large masses of cargo over long distances is considered to be sea transport. It provides more than 60% of the volume of international trade. In recent decades, air transport has become a serious competitor to sea transport in the intercontinental transport of valuable goods. Rail, river and road

transport is widely used mainly in inland foreign trade, as well as in the transportation of export and import goods through the territory of the countries of the seller and the countries of purchase. Pipeline systems play an important role in international oil and gas trade. In addition, air transport has firmly taken the leading position in international passenger traffic.

The transport system of Russia is part of the global transport system. Russia has a developed transport network, which includes 115 thousand km of railways, 115 thousand km of inland waterways, more than 600 thousand km of paved roads, 70 thousand km of main oil and product pipelines, over 140 thousand km. km of main gas pipelines. The transport network of Russia includes over 600 thousand km of air lines and many sea routes of various lengths.

Brief conclusions

The structure of the economy is a multifaceted concept, since the economy can be structured based on a wide variety of criteria. The purpose of any structuring is to show the correlation of various elements of the economic system. Usually, social, sectoral, reproduction, regional (territorial) and foreign trade structures are distinguished.

The structure of the world economy in the sectoral context can be represented as follows:

- "primary industries": extractive industry and agriculture (agro-industrial complex);

- "secondary industries": industry and construction;

- "tertiary industries": the service sector, including transport.

Each of the aforementioned basic industries can be further subdivided into enlarged industries, industries and types of production.

The main sectoral complexes of the world economy - the fuel and energy complex, mechanical engineering, the agro-industrial complex and the transport complex - have their own structure and their own development prospects.

Literature

Avdokushin, E.F. International Economic Relations: Textbook. - M .: 2001.

Babin, E.P. foreign economic policy: Textbook. manual / E.P. Babin, T.M. Isachenko. - M .: ZAO Publishing House "Economics", 2006.

Gordeev, V.V. World economy and the problems of globalization: Textbook / V.V. Gordeev. - M .: Higher. shk., 2008.

Gurov, I.P. World economy: textbook. / I.P. Gurov. - M .: Omega-L, 2007.

Kireev, A.P. International economics. In 2 hours - Part 1. International microeconomics: movement of goods and factors of production. Textbook for universities. / A.P. Kireev. - M .: Mezhdunar. relations, 2008.

Kireev, A.P. International economics. At 2 o'clock - Part II. International Macroeconomics: Open Economy and Macroeconomic Programming. Textbook for universities. - M .: Mezhdunar. Relations, 2009.

Kolesov V.P., Kulakov M.V. International Economics: Textbook. - M .: INFRA-M, 2006.

Lomakin, V.K. World economy: a textbook for university students studying in economic specialties and areas / V.K. Lomakin. - M .: UNITY-DANA, 2007.

International economic relations: Textbook for universities / V.E. Rybalkin, Yu.A. Shcherbanin, L.V. Baldin and others; Ed. Prof. V.E., Rybalkina. - M .: UNITY-DANA, 2006.

International economic relations: Textbook for universities. / E.F. Zhukov, T.I., Kapaeva and others, edited by prof. E.F. Zhukov. - M .: UNITI_DANA, 2009.

Miklashevskaya, N.A., Kholopov A.V. International Economics: Textbook / Ed. Ed. Doctor of Economics, prof. A.V. Sidorovich. - M .: Publishing house "Business and Service", 2008.

World economy: an introduction to foreign economic activity: Textbook for universities / M, V, Elova, E.K. Muravyova, S, M, Panferova and others; Ed. A, K, Shurkalina, N, S, Tsypina. - M .: Logos, 2006.

World economy: textbook. textbook for universities / Ed. Prof. I.P. Nikolaeva. - M .: UNITI_DANA, 2007.

World Economy: Textbook / Ed. Prof. A.S. Bulatov. - M .: Jurist, 2007.

World Economy: a textbook for university students studying in the specialties "Finance and Credit", "Accounting, Analysis and Audit", "World Economy" / ed. Yu.A. Shcherbanin. - M .: UNITY-DANA, 2007.

Fomichev, V.I. International Trade: A Textbook. - M .: INFRA-M, 2008.

Tsypin, I.S., Vesnin, V.R. World economy: textbook. / I.S. Tsypnin, V.R. Vesnin. - M .: 2009.

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The world economy can be viewed, on the one hand, as a set of national economies differing in the level of development, structure of the national economy, its organization, on the other, as a system of international economic relations that penetrate the borders of national economies, linking them into a single whole. [Korolchuk, Gurko, p. 9]

The sectoral structure of the economy is understood as the totality of its parts (branches and sub-branches), historically formed as a result of the social division of labor. It is characterized by share percentage indicators in relation to either the employment of the economically active population, or to the produced GDP. When studying the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is customary to distinguish three of its levels - macro-, meso- and micro-levels. Accordingly, one speaks of the macrostructure, mesostructure and microstructure of the economy. [Maksokovsky, 1 hour, p. 170]

The macrostructure (macro-sectoral structure) of the world economy reflects its largest and most important internal proportions - between the production and non-production spheres, between industry and agriculture, and some others. It is these proportions that first of all determine the attribution of a particular country to the agrarian, industrial or post-industrial stage of development. At the pre-industrial stage, the agrarian structure of the economy prevailed, at the industrial stage - the industrial, and the post-industrial stage is characterized by its own, post-industrial, structure.

The agrarian type of macro-sectoral structure of the economy is characterized by the predominance of agriculture and related industries. Since the modern world is of different stages, in relation to agriculture it differs, perhaps, in the greatest contrast. At one extreme are post-industrial countries, where the share of agriculture in GDP has already decreased to 1-5%, and in the employment of the economically active population - to 3-8%. [Maksakovsky, 1 hour, p.170] The least developed countries of Asia and Africa still remain at the other extreme, where the share of agriculture in GDP remains at the level of 2/5 to 3/5. [Maksakovsky, 1 ch., P. 170] In terms of employment, it is even higher: the average employment in agriculture for both Africa and Asia is almost 60%, and in Nepal, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Rwanda it exceeds 9 /10. [Maksakovsky, 1 h., P. 170]

The industrial type of macro-industry structure, which is characterized by a large share of industry and construction, until the middle of the XX century. was typical for all economically developed countries. The industrial structure of the economy continues to persist in some countries with economies in transition.

The post-industrial type of macro-sectoral structure of the economy began to form already in the era of scientific and technological revolution. Its most characteristic feature is the change in the ratio between the production (material) and non-production (non-material) spheres in favor of the latter. The non-production sphere unites a wide range of different types of economic activities aimed at meeting the personal needs of the population, the needs of production, as well as the needs of society as a whole. Sometimes this area is subdivided into services, social services, finance, public administration and defense.

It can be added that if we consider the indicators not of GDP, but of the employment of the economically active population, then the share of the service sector in most cases will turn out to be even greater. For example, in the USA, Great Britain, France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, Israel, it exceeds 70%. [Maksakovsky, 1 h., P. 172]

From all that has been said, it follows that the stage difference described above is quite clearly tied to the three main types of countries modern world... Economically developed countries lead in terms of their share in the economy of the service sector, developing countries - agriculture, and countries with economies in transition - industry and construction (Table 1.3.1).

In the context of individual countries and regions, global indicators are also of great interest. Based on data on the structure of the economically active population, they were included in Table 1.3.1, based on data on the structure of GDP are shown in Figure 1.3.1.

In the western, and recently in the domestic scientific literature, when characterizing the sectoral structure of the economy, it is widely used to subdivide it into three sectors - primary, secondary and tertiary. The primary sector of the economy includes industries related to the use of natural conditions and resources - agriculture and forestry, fishing, extractive industries. The secondary sector covers all branches of the manufacturing industry and construction. And the tertiary sector includes the service sector. The growth of the branches of this sphere has led to the fact that sometimes the Quaternary sector, which has absorbed the latest types of information activities, has also been singled out.

The mesostructure (meso-sectoral structure) of the world economy reflects the main proportions that develop within industry, agriculture, and the service sector.

Thus, in the structure of the world industry under the influence of scientific and technological revolution, there is a gradual decrease in the share of extractive industries and an increase in the share of processing industries. The structure of the industry is also influenced by the outstripping rates of development of industries that primarily ensure scientific and technological progress - mechanical engineering, the chemical industry and the electric power industry.

Even more significant structural shifts at the meso-level are characteristic of the service sector. They are associated both with different growth rates of demand for various types of services, and with the emergence of completely new types of them. The demand for social and cultural services related to education, healthcare, servicing people's free time, household services, services in the field of transport, communications, credit and finance, etc. is growing quite rapidly. The need for a complex of business services is growing even faster. includes a marketing and advertising service, security and maintenance services for premises, accounting operations, insurance, etc. And the consulting business is growing very rapidly: developing and providing clients with scientific solutions to various economic problems - in the form of information, expertise, advice or direct participation in management, market research.

The microstructure (microbranch structure) of material production reflects the shifts occurring in certain types and subspecies of such production, primarily industrial. At the same time, the newest science-intensive types of mechanical engineering and the chemical industry are increasingly coming to the fore, such as the production of electronic computers, automation equipment, aerospace, laser technology, equipment for atomic energy, and the production of microbiological preparations. It is under the influence of shifts in the microstructure that diversification (fragmentation) of the structure of the economy occurs to the greatest extent. The highest level of such diversification is in the United States. They are followed by Japan, Germany and other developed countries.

Thus, the sectoral structure of the world economy can be characterized by:

* macro level, which reflects the largest and most important internal proportions - between the production and non-production spheres, between industry and agriculture, and some others .;

* meso-level, which reflects the main proportions that take shape within industry, agriculture, and the service sector;

* micro level, which reflects the shifts occurring in certain types and subspecies of material production, primarily industrial.

The formation of the world economy is the result of a thousand-year evolution of the productive forces. That is why it is possible to single out a long stage in the prehistory of the world economy, and then the stages of its emergence (XVI century), the formation ( end of XIX c.) and in the XX century. stages of its predominant development.

As for the sectoral structure of the world economy, it is relatively dynamic and subject to changes associated primarily with the course of scientific and technological progress.

The sectoral structure of the world economy. Classification of countries by the level of development of industries

the structure of the modern economy; dynamics of development of the structure of modern industry; classification of countries by level of development

The concept of the sectoral structure of the economy

The structure of the economy is a multifaceted concept, it can be viewed from different points of view, showing the relationship between various elements of the economic system. Usually, social, sectoral, reproduction, regional (territorial) and foreign trade structures are distinguished.

The sectoral structure of the economy in the broad sense is a set of qualitatively homogeneous groups of economic units, characterized by special conditions of production in the system of social division of labor and playing a specific role in the process of expanded reproduction.

Sectoral shifts at the macro level, if we consider them in a long historical framework, manifested themselves first in the rapid growth of "primary industries" (agriculture and mining), then "secondary" (industry and construction), and in the last period - "tertiary industries" ( services sector).

International Standard Industry Classification

In world practice, the basis for the formation of the structural elements of the economy is the international standard sectoral classification of all types of economic activity and the international standard classification of occupations, which are components of the system of national accounts (SNA). The SNA provides for the use of two types of classifications by industry and by sector. Grouping by industry provides a characterization of the sectoral structure of the economy, allows you to establish the contribution of each industry to the creation of GDP, to trace inter-industry relationships and proportions. The grouping by sectors of the economy, formed depending on the functions performed by economic units in the economic process, allows you to analyze the processes in the field of distribution and redistribution of income, investment financing. Thus, the accounts of the “households” sector contain the data necessary to analyze the most important aspects of social processes and living standards (income distribution, consumption, savings, etc.),
and the role of the household sector in generating and using gross domestic product. A special place in the system of national accounts is occupied by inter-sectoral balances, which is due to the wide opportunities that they present for analyzing the dynamics and structure of the economy, the main cost and natural-material proportions, conducting international comparisons, and performing forecast economic calculations. Depending on the goals of economic analysis, input-output balances can include from several tens to several thousand industries.

Basic industries of the modern world economy

The basic industries for the development of input-output balances are industry, agriculture, construction, trade, transport and communications, and other industries (which mainly include service industries). Each branch of the economy, in turn, is dismembered
on the so-called enlarged industries, industries and types of production.
Each of the enlarged industries includes homogeneous industries that are specialized in the production of certain types of products.

When referring an enterprise, types of production and services to a particular sector of the economy, the purpose of the product or services, the type of basic raw materials and materials, the nature of the technological process are taken into account. In a number of cases, difficulties arise when attributing a specific section of the economy to a particular industry. This is due to the fact that as a result of specialization, products that are homogeneous in purpose are often manufactured using different technologies, from a variety of raw materials, etc. In addition, there is a process of penetration of techniques and methods
from one industry to another. Products for a wide variety of purposes are produced from the same raw materials.

Each production is characterized by a certain nomenclature of manufactured products. Differentiated classification,
which is based on the type of product and type of production, followed by their unification into industries, enlarged industries and sectors of the economy, facilitates the continuity of the classification in the context of the developing international division of labor.

The dynamics of the development of the structure of modern industry at the turn of the XX-XXI centuries.

Industry is the main, leading branch of material production, in which the predominant part of the gross domestic product and national income is created. For example, in modern conditions the share of industry in the total GDP of developed countries is about 40%. The leading role of industry is also due to the fact that
its development depends on the degree of satisfaction of the needs of society
in high-quality products, provision of technical re-equipment and production intensification.

Modern industry consists of many independent branches of production, each of which includes a large group of related enterprises and production associations, located in some cases at a considerable territorial distance from each other. The sectoral structure of industry is characterized by the composition of sectors, their quantitative ratios, expressing certain production relationships between them. In the process of statistical accounting and analysis, the sectoral structure of industry is usually determined by finding the share of sectors in the total volume of production, the number of employees and the value of the fixed assets of the industry.

Among the listed indicators, with the help of which the sectoral structure of the industry is determined, the main indicator is the volume of production. It allows one to more objectively judge not only the ratio of industries, but also their interconnections, the dynamics of the sectoral structure of industry. Determining the sectoral structure of industry in terms of the number of employees, one should have
in view of that in this case a slightly different picture will be obtained, which does not quite accurately characterize the actual share of industries in general industrial production: the share of more labor-intensive industries will be overestimated, and vice versa, the share of industries with a high level of mechanization and automation will be underestimated. Sectoral structure, calculated
using the indicator of the value of fixed assets, mainly reflects the production and technical level of industries.

The sectoral structure of industry reflects the level of industrial development of the country and its economic independence, the degree of technical equipment of the industry and the leading role of this industry in the economy as a whole. A more perfect sectoral structure of industry to a certain extent characterizes the efficiency of industrial production. The progressiveness of the structure of industry is judged both by the composition and specific weight of the industries included in the industry, and by how perfect the intra-industry structure of a particular industry is, that is, how much the most progressive industries are represented and developed in this industry.

Changes in the sectoral structure of industry
world economy

The interrelationships of industries, the proportions that have developed between them, are determined by the mode of production, as well as the cumulative action on its basis of many other factors. The most important of these factors determining changes in the sectoral structure of industry include:

Scientific and technological progress and the degree of implementation of its results

In production;

The level of social division of labor, the development of specialization

Characteristics of the industry structure
developing and post-socialist countries

Newly industrialized and post-socialist countries are at approximately the same level of economic development in terms of GDP
per capita, and by the sectoral structure of the economy. These two groups of countries retain a relatively high share of agriculture (6–10% of GDP), which is gradually approaching the level of developed countries (2–4%). The share of industry in the GDP of both groups of countries (25–40%) is at the level of post-industrial countries and even exceeds it. This is due to the relatively low level of the service sector (45–55% of GDP).

In the sectoral structure of the GDP of developing countries, the share of agriculture is still high (20–35%). The share of industry in the GDP of these countries is usually small (10–25%), and it is higher mainly in the countries exporting mineral raw materials and fuels, while the share of manufacturing industry ranges from 5–15%.

Major shifts in the structure of the economy of developed countries

In the economies of developed countries at the stage of post-industrial development, the share of the service sector (tertiary sector) has significantly increased and the share of the sphere of material production (primary and secondary sectors) has decreased. In the structure of the GDP of these countries in the 60-90s. the share of agriculture has been steadily declining (from 6.5% in 1960 to 4.2% in 1980 and 3% in 1995). Along with the noted long-term trend, these shifts are also explained by the fact that under the influence of scientific and technological progress, many types of activities were spun off from agriculture and separated into special industries and services. At the same time, there is an integration of agriculture, industry and trade into the agro-industrial complex, which is a new type of production ties.

Table 4.1.

The structure of the GDP of individual industrialized countries,%.

Country	Years	Agriculture	Industry	Services sector


Germany

The share of manufacturing in GDP increases until a certain level of per capita income is reached - approximately the level of highly developed countries at the end of the 60s. (13-15 thousand dollars), and then it stabilizes or decreases. The most significant reduction has occurred since the mid-60s. in the USA, Great Britain, France. In countries that started industrialization a little later (Japan, Italy), the share of manufacturing industries continued to grow until the early 1970s, but then began to decline.

The most important trend in changes in the structure of the GDP of industrialized countries in the second half of the XX century. was the transformation of the non-production sphere (tertiary sector) into the predominant part of their economy. The volume of transactions in the service sector exceeded the volume of production in the manufacturing industry in these countries (Table 4.1).

The concept of the agro-industrial complex

Agriculture and related industries - forestry, hunting, fishing - are not only the oldest, but also the most widespread occupation of people. World agriculture employs about 1.1 billion people of the economically active population, including in developed countries - only 22 million people, in countries with economies in transition -
32 million people (including in the CIS countries - 20 million people and
in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe - 12 million), in China - 450 million and in developing countries - about 600 million.

In the most developed countries with economies in transition and newly industrialized states, commercial, mainly intensive agriculture prevails. In other developing countries (except for newly industrialized countries), a significant share of subsistence farming in the agro-industrial sector remains.

In developed and post-socialist countries in recent decades, there has been a process of agro-industrial integration, which means the organizational and commercial unification of agricultural and industrial enterprises. As a result of this process, the agro-industrial complex (AIC) is being formed. This complex is a single system of agricultural and industrial enterprises, united by close and stable production and commercial ties based on property relations or contracts.

The agro-industrial complex covers the entire production chain and includes three areas:

Sphere 1 - industry producing means of production for agriculture, as well as providing production and technical services to this industry;

Sphere 2 - agriculture itself (agriculture and animal husbandry);

Sphere 3 - industries for the transportation, processing and marketing of food and agricultural raw materials.

In highly developed countries, the share of the agro-industrial complex is steadily growing (in the United States, about 75% of the total cost of food products is formed in it), and the share of agricultural production itself is decreasing. In general, in the mid-90s. the ratio between the three spheres of the agro-industrial complex in developed countries was 3: 1: 6. As a result, US agriculture provides about 2% of GDP, it employs 2.5% of workers, while the entire agro-industrial complex supplies 18% of GDP and employs about 20% of the country's workforce. In countries with economies in transition, the share of agriculture
in the structure of the agro-industrial complex is significantly higher than in Western countries, which reflects the weak development of processing of agricultural raw materials, including the food industry. Thus, the agro-industrial complex of Russia employs about 30% of workers, including agriculture - 15%, and the share of this industry in the GDP is 6.7% (1997).

In developing countries, traditional consumer (or small-scale) agriculture predominates. The traditional sector is represented by hundreds of millions of small plots, the production of which is enough mainly to feed a peasant family. Primitive agriculture prevails, in which a wooden plow and a hoe remain the main tools for cultivating the soil. At least 20 million families are engaged in slash-and-burn agriculture.

At the same time, in many developing countries, a high-value sector has developed, represented by plantations of some tropical and subtropical crops (coffee, cocoa, tea, natural rubber, bananas, sugar cane, etc.), but the plantation sector is oriented more towards export than towards the domestic market.

Technological base of agriculture

World tractor fleet in the mid-90s. amounted to about
26-27 million cars. But in developed countries, which account for 2/3 of this park, it has practically not grown lately. The reason for this lies in achieving the maximum level of agricultural mechanization for modern technology and focusing not on the number of tractors, but on the quality and structure of the tractor fleet.

Chemicalization is another area of agricultural intensification. The highest level, measured in the most general form, by the consumption of fertilizers per 1 ha of arable land and perennial plantations, it reached in Germany (418 kg), the Netherlands (773 kg), Japan (387 kg).
In countries with large land resources, the specific consumption of fertilizers is much lower (in Canada - 12 kg, in Australia - 28 kg).
Developed countries account for 85% of total fertilizer consumption,
including the USA - 45%, Western Europe - 28%, Japan - 12%. Moreover, in recent years there has been a stabilization of the use of mineral fertilizers, and in a number of countries and an absolute reduction in their use (France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, etc.). The greatest demand is now for ecologically clean agricultural products grown either with minimal use of mineral fertilizers, or without them at all.

The process of transferring agriculture to an industrial basis was carried out in the USA, Canada, Great Britain even before the Second World War, in most other countries of Western Europe and Japan - in the 50s, in the USSR and countries of Central and Eastern Europe - by the end of the 70s. x years. Highly developed countries are currently at a new stage in the transformation of agricultural production - at the stage of the "biotechnological revolution", which is characterized by the widespread use of biotechnology.

Agriculture, which at the beginning of the XX century. everywhere was a labor-intensive industry, in industrialized countries in the 40s and 60s. has become a capital intensive industry. At present, it is transforming from capital-intensive to science-intensive, primarily in developed countries.

The "green revolution" that began in the 60s. in developing countries is the transformation of agriculture based on modern agricultural technology. It includes three components: the development of new varieties of crops, primarily cereals; expansion of irrigated land; raising the level of agricultural mechanization, the massive use of mineral fertilizers and chemical plant protection products. As a result of the "green revolution", the yield of grain crops has increased 2-3 times, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, Thailand and some other countries have become self-sufficient.

The structure of world agricultural production

Agriculture in almost all countries of the world consists of two large interconnected industries: agriculture (crop production) and animal husbandry. The relationship between these industries is changing due to shifts in industrialized countries that have led to the predominance of livestock over crop production. Thus, in Sweden and Finland, livestock production accounts for 75–80% of gross agricultural output. In the USA, the share of livestock raising is noticeably lower - about 55%, in France - 53%. The exception is the Mediterranean countries, including Italy, where this industry produces 40–42% of agricultural products, which is largely determined by the insufficiently favorable natural conditions for animal husbandry.

Livestock breeding

In developed countries and countries with economies in transition, intensive dairy and meat animal husbandry is widespread. The livestock is kept here in stalls or pasture-stalls. Concentrated feed is widely used. In many highly developed countries, agriculture, specializing
on crops of forage crops, subordinated to animal husbandry (for example,
in the US corn-soybean belt).

The transition to industrial methods, the improvement of the fodder base, and the success of breeding have led to a significant increase in the productivity of animal husbandry. Milk yield from one cow was in 1996 (thousand kg):
in the USA - 6.7; Denmark - 6.3; Sweden - 6.2; Japan - 5.2. In the same time
in Russia this indicator in 1996-1997. amounted to 2.8 thousand kg, Argentina - 2.6; China - 1.6; Mongolia - 0.35. Industrialized countries surpass developing countries in milk yield per cow 6 times, and in terms of meat yield - 1.5 times.

Highest milk production per capita in the mid-90s. (in kg) was achieved in New Zealand (2400), the Netherlands (900), Belarus (700), France (490), Germany (450). In Russia, this figure was 300 kg. The highest meat production per capita (in kg) was noted in the Netherlands (200), Australia (180), USA (125), Argentina (125), Germany (110), France (110). In Russia, this figure in the mid-90s. was about 40 kg.

Livestock breeding prevails in the countries of the Near and Middle East,
and also in Argentina and Uruguay. In these countries, it is mainly extensive in nature, pastoralism prevails.

Agriculture

The main branch of agriculture is the cultivation of grain crops, the production of which in the second half of the XX century. has grown significantly. If in 1900-1949. (inclusive) it increased from 500 to 800 million tons, then in 1950-1995. - from 800 to 2000 million tons. A significant role in this was played by a sharp increase in grain production in China, India, and the countries of Southeast Asia.

More than 30% of the gross grain harvest is produced in developed countries.
in the world. Highly developed countries lead on two important indicators. First, in terms of grain yield (t / ha), on average for 1990–1997: Japan - 54, USA - 47, EU (as a whole) - 46 (for comparison, in Russia - 14–16). Second, in terms of grain harvest per capita (kg): Canada - 2125; Australia - 1320; USA - 1250; France - 1050 (in Russia - 790).

In the whole world, 55% of grain is consumed by people and 45% goes
for livestock feed. The use of grain in countries depends on their level of development. In developed countries, less than 25% of the grain is used for food, and the rest is used as feed for livestock and poultry. In developing countries, up to 90% of grain is used
for food needs.

In the structure of the gross grain harvest, the dominant positions are occupied by three crops: wheat (28%), rice (26%) and corn (25%). The diet is dominated by rice (21%) and wheat (20%), while the share of corn is small (5%), since most of it is used for livestock feed.

World trade in agricultural products

The share of agricultural products in world exports in recent decades has been steadily decreasing: for food products from 13%
in 1970 to 9% in 1996, for agricultural raw materials - from 7%
up to 2.5%. This decline is explained, firstly, by the successes in food self-sufficiency in Western and Central Europe, China and India,
and secondly, the use of substitutes instead of natural agricultural raw materials. In addition, in recent decades, there has been a pronounced trend towards outstripping growth in trade in ready-to-eat food products.

In world exports of food products, the share of developed countries remained almost unchanged (72.4% in 1970 and 72.1% in 1996), while the share of developing countries during this time increased from 17.5% to 20.9% , while the share of countries with economies in transition, on the contrary, decreased from 9.9% to 6.6%.

World export grain resources are annually about 200 million tons (10-11% of the gross harvest), including 90-100 million tons of wheat, 60-70 million tons of corn, 15-20 million tons of rice. The main exporters of wheat are the USA, Canada, France, Australia and Argentina, and the USA is the main exporter of corn. The largest importers of wheat are China, Japan, Brazil, Egypt. Thailand, the USA, Vietnam, Myanmar, Pakistan occupy the leading positions in the world rice export, while Indonesia, Bangladesh, Iran, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Brazil are significant importers.

The largest importer of grain in the 70s and 80s. was the Soviet Union (the average annual volume of purchases in 1986-1990 reached 32.4 million tons, or 16.9% of the gross grain harvest in the USSR for the same years). Russia in 1990-1991 imported 20 million tons of grain annually, in 1992 - 27 million tons, but in 1993, due to a decrease in demand for feed grain, imports fell to 11 million tons, and in 1994-1997. generally came to naught.

The main suppliers of beef are Australia, Brazil, the Netherlands, Canada and the USA; lamb - Australia and New Zealand; bat bird - USA, France, Brazil. More than 5 million heads of cattle, 9-10 million heads of pigs and 15 million sheep are annually supplied to the world market. The main exporters of live breeding stock are the USA, Canada and EU member states.

The annual volume of world trade in dairy products exceeds 11 million tons. The Netherlands, Ireland, Denmark and France are leading in the export of cheese, while New Zealand, the Netherlands, Ireland and Denmark are leaders in butter. Russia is a major importer of dairy products.

Fuel and energy complex (FEC).
Main trends in the development of the fuel and energy complex

With the growth of population and production, the world consumption of primary energy resources (billion tons of standard fuel) increases: 1950 - 3.9; 1960 - 4.7; 1970 - 6.8; 1980 - 8.7; 1990 - 10.3; 1997 - 11.9. Average annual growth rates of energy consumption in the world in the first half of the XX century. accounted for 2-3%, and in 1950-1975. - already 5%. The growth in energy consumption was ensured by the rapid increase in oil and natural gas production (that was the era of “cheap oil”, when in the period from 1952 to 1972 prices for it in the world market were only $ 14 per ton).

However, in 1973, an energy crisis erupted, as a result of which the world oil price jumped to $ 250-300 per ton. , Sahara, Siberia), to the continental shelf. Another reason was the desire of developing oil-exporting countries (OPEC members) to use their position as owners of the majority of the world's oil reserves.

The leading countries of the world, especially the developed ones, were forced to revise the concept of energy development. If before the energy crisis forecasts of energy consumption in the world for 2000 were 20–25 billion tons of standard fuel, then after the energy crisis of the 70s. they were adjusted towards a significant decrease (according to the last of them - up to 12.4 billion tons of standard fuel). At the center of economic strategy
Since then, there has been energy saving, which includes not only a reduction in oil consumption as an energy resource, but also the restructuring of the sectoral structure of the industry by curtailing energy-intensive industries.

As a result, in developed countries, the average annual growth rate of consumption of primary energy resources has noticeably decreased: from 1.8% in the 1980s to up to 1.45% in 1991-1997; according to the forecast for 1995–2015. it will not exceed 1.25%. At the same time, in socialist and post-socialist countries
no radical energy saving measures were taken. In developing countries, the consumption of primary energy resources in the 90s. grew even faster than before: in 1991-1997. - on average by 3%, including in newly industrialized countries and OPEC member countries - by 5%. Such a significant increase in energy consumption is explained by the higher rates of economic growth in these countries, as well as the development of basic industries in them, including extractive industries, the introduction of energy-intensive technologies and the massive transition to road transport.

As a result, the energy intensity of GDP (growth in consumption of primary energy resources for each percentage of GDP growth) in the 90s. was:
in developed countries - 0.6%, developing countries (including China) - 0.8%, member states of the CIS, Central and Eastern Europe - 0.9%.

Therefore, in the world consumption of primary energy resources, the share of industrially developed countries decreased from 59.5% at the end of the 1980s. up to 51%
in 1995 and according to the forecast in 2015 it will decrease to 43%. Although per capita energy consumption is high and continues to grow -
From 4803 kg of oil equivalent in 1980 to 5118 kg in 1995, the share of developing countries (including China) in total consumption increased over the specified period from 21.9 to 31.4% and is expected to reach 40% in 2015. ,
while the share of countries with economies in transition (excluding China) is decreasing and will reach 17% in 2015 (according to the forecast). The economic downturn in the 90s. has led here to a decrease in energy consumption per capita. So if
in 1980 in Russia the indicator was 5499 kg, then in 1995 - 4079 kg.

Nuclear power plants

Atomic energy is becoming an increasingly important source of fuel and energy resources.

Currently, there are about 140 nuclear reactors operating in the world.
Their share in the total volume of electricity production in the world during the 80s and 90s of the XX century remains at the level of 10-11%, and their share
in the consumption of nuclear fuel by the beginning of 1996 was 7.3%.

A striking example is fundamentally new technology in the field of informatics and communications is the introduction of fiber-optic communications.
In particular, two underwater fiber-optic lines were built: across the Pacific Ocean with a length of 11.5 thousand km (USA - Hawaii - Japan) and across the Atlantic Ocean - 6.5 thousand km (USA - Western Europe).

The concept of the service sector of the world economy

The service sector includes:

Traditional industries: transport and communications, trade;

Such branches of economic activity as finance, credit and insurance, consulting, information and other business services;

Socio-cultural industries: science and scientific services, education, medicine and physical education, social services, consumer services, housing and communal services, art, culture, tourism and other recreational services.

international tourism

One of the most dynamic service industries is tourism, especially international tourism. The number of international tourists is constantly growing: in 1950 - 25 million people; in 1970 - 160; in 1990 - 420; in 1995 - 560. Tourism provides jobs in all countries of the world over 100 million people. Income from foreign tourism in total receipts from the export of goods and services is (%): in the USA and Great Britain - 5; France and Denmark - 7-8; Italy and Switzerland - 11–12; Portugal - over 20; Spain and Austria - 30–35. In Russia, tourism as one of the branches of the service sector is very poorly developed. The number of tourists leaving Russia abroad significantly exceeds the number of foreign tourists visiting our country. This means an unfavorable balance of foreign exchange earnings from tourism for Russia.

International trade in services

Depending on the level of development of the service sector, the countries of the world can be divided into three groups. The first group of countries with a high level of development of the service sector includes developed countries with a post-industrial economy. The countries with an average level of development of the service sector include the newly industrialized countries of Southeast Asia and Latin America,
as well as countries with economies in transition, which are characterized by a relatively high level of development of one or two branches of the service sector with insufficient development of this sector as a whole. Most of the developing countries are in the group with a low level of development of the service sector.

World exports of services are characterized by the following data (trillion dollars): 1970 - 0.1; 1980 r. - 0.4; 1997 - 1.3, that is, it was constantly increasing. In the 80s and 90s. it accounted for 20-25% of all world exports of goods and services. At the same time, there have been great changes
in the structure of world exports of services: the share of transport services is gradually decreasing (from 35% in 1975 to 24% in 1996), the share of international tourist services continues to grow (from 24 to 32%, respectively).
Business services are becoming more widespread.

Developed countries dominate the world market for services. They account for about 70% of world exports and about the same share of world imports of services. The United States stands out in particular, accounting for about 18% of all world exports of services; in their total export of goods and services, the share of the latter is close to 30%.

The share of developing countries in world trade in services is gradually increasing. Some of them have become major exporters of services: South Korea - engineering, consulting and construction, Mexico - tourism. The share of countries with economies in transition in world exports of services is about 4%, including the share of Russia - 1%. These countries have significant opportunities for the development of tourism, transit, shipping, engineering consulting and construction services.

QUESTIONS FOR SELF-TEST

1. What are the main "basic" branches of the modern world economy.

2. What industries are knowledge-intensive?

4. Give the definition of the transport complex of the country.

5. What are the sectoral features of developing countries.

Spiridonov Economics: Textbook. allowance. - M .: INFRA-M, 1999.S. 218–222.