The real sector of the economy is usually represented. Enterprises of the real sector of the economy

Real sector of the economy- a set of sectors of the economy that produce tangible and intangible goods and services, with the exception of financial and credit and exchange transactions, which relate to the financial sector of the economy.

The term does not have a clear legislative definition. It is often used in political vocabulary and journalism without specifying the meaning. Many authors mean by the real sector only the sphere of material production and do not refer to it services, trade, science.

The real sector of the economy (real production sector) - the sector in which it is created. Includes industrial production consisting of and,.

The basis of the real sector of the economy is the production of industrial and agricultural products. It is in the sphere of production that the manufacturer interacts with nature, new material goods are created. The quantitative and qualitative development of the production sphere ensures the welfare of society, the growth of incomes of the population, creates a material basis for the development of education, health care, and culture.

The state of the real sector of the economy is influenced by:

the level of development of the productive forces;
scientific and technical progress;
states;
budgetary policy;
measures taken by the state to ensure the growth of investment;
the level of world prices;
state of the country.

After World War II, the real sector of the economy in the former USSR underwent several stages in its development. 1945-1950 - reorientation of industry from military production to peaceful lines (conversion); the period 1950-1970 was characterized by rapid and efficient economic development; 1971-1991 - relatively high, but decaying rates of development. Since 1991, the process of transition to a market economy began, due to a slowdown in economic growth, the emergence of intersectoral imbalances, a fall in capital productivity, the efficiency of capital investments, and a high level of militarization of the economy of the former USSR. At the same time, the transition to a market system was accompanied by a number of structural, financial and systemic crises.

The state of the real sector of the economy is significantly influenced by:

the state and, first of all, the level of interest rates, which determines the ability of enterprises to resort to short-term and long-term ones to replenish working capital and make capital investments;
foreign trade balance of the country;
in the country, the presence of favorable conditions for investment, primarily direct;
state policy that guarantees the rights of investors, provides opportunities for, creating conditions under which it is impossible to revise the results of privatization;
the presence or absence of restrictions in foreign economic activity.

Real sector of the economy

The basis of the real sector of the economy is the production of industrial and agricultural products.

It is in the sphere of production that the manufacturer interacts with nature, new material goods are created. The quantitative and qualitative development of the production sphere ensures the well-being of society, an increase in the income of the population, creates a material basis for the development of education, health care, and culture.

The sectoral structure of the national economy. Real and financial sector

The structure of the national economy Is a set of historically established stable, capable of reproducing functional relationships between various units of the national economy.

The sectoral structure of the national economy consists in the grouping of economic entities into groups of homogeneous composition, connected by homogeneous functional characteristics - the branches of the national economy.
The sectoral structure of the national economy goes through the following stages of its development:
1) the first is associated with the active development and predominance of primary sectors of the economy, such as agriculture, mining;
2) the second is associated with the development and dominance of secondary industries - production, construction;
3) the third is associated with the development and predominance of tertiary industries - the service sector.
These stages of development of the sectoral structure of the national economy replaced each other, but for each individual country they had their own specific features.
Dynamic changes in the sectoral structure occur cyclically over a period of time from 10 to 20 years. They are characterized by the following features:
1) increasing the value and volume of the service industry - the intellectual, information sphere;
2) a decrease in the volume of the extractive industry in comparison with others;
3) the growth of industrial production against the background of the agricultural sector of the economy.
Scientific and technological progress has a great influence on the nature of the sectoral structure of the national economy. It leads to the fact that some industries disappear or stagnate, while others, such as nuclear power, are actively developing. A distinctive feature is the emergence of related sectors of the economy - petrochemical, rocket and space, etc.
The industry structure is changing in the following main areas:
1) a fundamental change in production technologies;
2) the dominance of the manufacturing industry in comparison with the extractive industry;
3) development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the national economy;
4) a shift in the center of gravity towards non-production sectors.
The modern sectoral structure of the national economy of Russia is characterized by the predominance of the fuel and energy complex (FEC).

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It is one of the most capital intensive industries, and therefore capital outflows from other industries. The orientation of the fuel and energy complex to the international market makes Russia dependent on world price fluctuations. As a result, more than half of the country's GDP is formed from the sale of resources. The predominance of the extractive sectors of the economy has a negative impact on the overall rate of development of the national economy. The dominance of the fuel and energy complex impedes the development of knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy.

There are also real and financial (monetary) sectors. V real sector creates goods and services, and financial- is intended to serve the sector in which the products are actually produced.

Real sector of the economy(RSE) - a set of sectors of the economy that produce tangible and intangible goods and services, with the exception of financial and credit and exchange transactions, which relate to the financial sector of the economy.

The division of the national economy into the real and financial sectors is to a certain extent arbitrary. These sectors differ in goals, nature of operations, and technical features. The financial sector has no clear boundaries, it encompasses cash flow, the provision of financial services, and financial management.

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Real sector of the economy a set of sectors of the economy that produce tangible and intangible goods and services, with the exception of financial and credit and exchange transactions, which relate to the financial sector of the economy.

The real sector of the economy (real production sector) - the sector in which the gross domestic product is created. Includes industrial production, consisting of enterprises of the extractive and processing industries, agriculture, the provision of industrial, household and other services.

Real sector of the economy

The quantitative and qualitative development of the production sphere ensures the welfare of society, the growth of incomes of the population, creates a material basis for the development of education, health care, and culture.

The state of the real sector of the economy is influenced by:

The state of the real sector of the economy is significantly influenced by:

the state of the financial market and, first of all, the level of interest rates, on which the ability of enterprises to resort to short-term and long-term bank loans to replenish working capital and make capital investments depends;
foreign trade balance of the country;
the investment climate in the country, the presence of favorable conditions for investments, primarily direct ones;
state policy that guarantees the rights of investors, provides opportunities for the repatriation of profits, the creation of conditions under which it is impossible to revise the results of privatization;
the presence or absence of restrictions in foreign economic activity.

For the normal functioning of enterprises in the real sector of the economy, an adequate tax system is also required.

Features of the development of the real sector of the Russian economy

The proportions presented in the previous sections take place in any national economy. At the same time, the real sectors of national economies are characterized by specific features that depend on the general state of the structure of the economy (agrarian country, industrial country), on the level of economic development (developed country, developing country). The type of economic system plays an important role in the formation and development of the proportions of the real sector. Until 1991 on the territory of Russia there was a planned economy. In a planned economy, the following proportions of the real sector operate: the planned economy presupposes the ability to concentrate large amounts of resources for the development of certain industries (for example, the space and defense industries), and finance other industries according to the "residual principle", respectively, the structure of the planned economy is characterized by disproportions uneven development of individual industries; in a planned economy, the main guideline for the economic activity of enterprises is the centralized planning task. Business practice has shown that it is easier to establish such targets for large monopoly enterprises, respectively, a planned economy is characterized by a higher level of monopolization of production than a market economy, the economic proportions of the real sector in a planned economy are of a monopoly character; a planned economy presupposes the possibility of a centralized redistribution of funds from one enterprise to another.

I. The real sector of the economy and its legal regulation

Accordingly, a planned economy is characterized by a large number of unprofitable enterprises that contribute to the formation of the proportions of the real sector, the latter is impossible in a market economy, since unprofitable enterprises are declared bankrupt and cease to exist.

Thus, the proportions of the real sector of the planned and market economies differed significantly. This is evidenced by the data table. 3.2. The orientation of the Soviet economy mainly towards the development of heavy industry branches led to the fact that by 1975. in the corresponding industries (fuel industry, metallurgy, mechanical engineering, except for transport), the production volumes exceeded the corresponding figures for the United States. At the same time, light industry has traditionally been financed on a “leftover basis”. This led to a significant lag of the USSR from the United States in terms of output in such industries as the textile and clothing industry, the chemical industry, and the pulp and paper industry. Due to the fact that in a planned economy, prices were set centrally, there were numerous "price imbalances", i.e. discrepancy between relative prices in the USSR for certain goods and their foreign counterparts.

Table 3.2.

The ratio of production volumes in certain industries of the USSR

	Account, in rubles	Account, in dollars
Most developed industries
Fuel industry	110,0	130,1
Metallurgy	123,1
Building materials industry	125,4	176,1
Mechanical engineering, except for transport	110,0	120,0
All mechanical engineering	92,3	94,2
Timber, woodworking and furniture industries	84,0	130,2
Textile and clothing industry	83,9	96,6
Leather and footwear industry	102,4	132,0
Lagging industries
Transport engineering	53,2	55,4
Chemical industry	61,6	39,9
Pulp and paper industry	17,6	22,0
Power engineering	37,1	48,1
Industries with an average level of development
Food industry	62,6	74,6
All industry	73,5	84,6

The elimination of government orders and the release of prices led to an initial decline in production in virtually all sectors. At the same time, the dynamics of development of individual industries is significantly different. In the early 90s, the most significant decline in production was observed in light industry, construction materials industry, timber, woodworking and pulp and paper industries. Ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, as well as the fuel industry turned out to be in a better position: in these sectors, economic growth began in 1995. Along with the aforementioned sectors, the chemical and petrochemical industries also showed the greatest dynamics during the period of economic growth.

Attention is drawn to the fact that the sectoral structure of the Russian economy over the period from 1992 to the present has changed significantly. Thus, the share of the fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, as well as the chemical and petrochemical industries increased. In turn, the share of mechanical engineering and metalworking, light industry and construction materials industry decreased. Such changes indicate that during the period of market reforms, the Russian economy acquired a pronounced focus on raw materials. A great impetus for the development of the commodity sector was given by a steady increase in oil prices.

Structural transformations are also reflected in employment. During the period of market reforms, the total number of employed decreased and unemployment appeared. The unemployment rate in Russia reached its peak in 1995–1998, and since 1999 there has been a slight decline in the unemployment rate due to economic growth. The number of people employed has decreased significantly in industry, agriculture and construction. In turn, there was an increase in employment in wholesale and retail trade, as well as in the financial sector. These trends are due to the general decline in production, on the one hand, and the emergence of market infrastructure, on the other. In some cases (education, health care, culture, art), the number of employed has not changed significantly, which is explained by the specifics of activities in these sectors.

The relationship between the dynamics of output and the dynamics of employment in Russia fundamentally confirms Okun's hypothesis that the amplitude of fluctuations in the level of output is significantly higher than the amplitude of fluctuations in employment. The economic downturn in the first half of the 1990s was higher than the growth rate of unemployment in the same period. In turn, economic growth since 1999 has led to a decrease in the number of unemployed. However, this decline was less significant compared to the growth rate of Russian GDP.

Thus, the features of the real sector of the Russian economy are due to transformation processes, on the one hand, and fluctuations in the commodity markets, on the other. The latter is due to the fact that Russia has rich reserves of raw materials that are in demand on world markets. In the course of market reforms in Russia, structural transformations are taking place, to one degree or another characteristic of the real sectors of many countries (for example, an increase in the share of the service sector). At the same time, the structural changes in Russia have a national identity (the excess of the share of savings over the share of investment in GDP, due to distrust in the national banking system).

conclusions

1. The real sector of the economy is a sphere of the economy associated with the production and consumption of goods and services, as well as the formation of employment.

2. In the sphere of production, the following types of macroeconomic proportions are distinguished: general economic proportions; proportions reflecting the structure of the social division of labor; proportions characterizing the change in GNP in the short term (multipliers); proportions reflecting the change in GNP in the long run (Solow expansion). To characterize the dynamics of macroeconomic proportions, such indicators as the index of structural changes and the index of similarity of structures are used. The produced product is subject to

live distribution, while distinguishing functional and individual distribution.

3. Macroeconomic proportions in employment are expressed in two forms: classification of different population groups in relation to employment; the relationship between the dynamics of employment and the dynamics of GNP. In relation to employment, the population of the country is divided into able-bodied and disabled. The working-age population is divided into institutional and non-institutional. In turn, the economically active population is divided into employed and unemployed. Distinguish between frictional, structural, seasonal and cyclical unemployment. There is also natural level unemployment. The relationship between the dynamics of employment and the dynamics of GNP expresses the Okun parameter

The totality of resources at the direct disposal of the state forms the public sector of the economy. Public sector of the economy Is a field of activity focused on eliminating market failures, creating common and socially significant benefits. The public sector is a rather complex entity and overlaps with the state to a significant extent. It includes budgetary institutions, state non-budgetary funds and state enterprises, and other objects of state property. However, not all state-owned enterprises are oriented towards the production of public goods. It is not entirely correct to classify state-owned commercial enterprises as the public sector, whose products are marketable goods, have the properties of competitiveness and exclusion.

In addition to these institutions, the public sector in the broadest sense of the word includes non-governmental non-profit organizations. The sector of non-profit organizations, which has received great development in leading foreign countries, is an important element of civil society. These structures operate in the area of market failures and are not profit-oriented. The goals and objectives of their activities are enshrined in the charter. Non-profit organizations can make a profit, but it is directed exclusively towards achieving statutory goals. An important difference between non-profit organizations and government organizations is that they are created on a voluntary basis and operate independently. They are distinguished by greater openness and responsibility towards the consumers of their services. In some cases, a part of the regulatory functions traditionally performed by the state may be transferred to non-profit organizations.

Public sector- it is not only a set of state enterprises and organizations owned by the state, but also money. In this regard, public finances play a key role among the components of the public sector: the state budget, its revenues and expenditures.

The public sector is an area of the economy or part of the economic space, where, in aggregate, the following specific conditions:

· The market does not operate or partially operates, therefore, the non-market way of coordinating economic activity, the non-market type of organizing the exchange of activities prevails;

· Not private, but public goods are produced, distributed and consumed;

· The economic balance between demand and supply of public goods is carried out by the state, local governments and voluntary public organizations with the help of appropriate social institutions and fiscal policy.

Unlike the market sector, the public sector deals with public goods, which for the most part are not subject to purchase and sale. In cases where there is a commercial transaction for a public good, it is not considered as the main incentive for the activities of public organizations. In this regard, public sector organizations are called non-profit. Since the public sector is dominated by government activities, it is often referred to as the public sector of the economy.

What is the "real sector of the economy"?

The structure of the public sector is heterogeneous and includes three subsectors: state, voluntary-public, mixed. On the one hand, the mixed sector occupies an intermediate position between the public and market sectors, on the other hand, there is an adjacent zone within the public sector between the state and voluntary-public subsectors.

The scale of the public sector is characterized by both the size of state ownership (resource reserves) and the volume of government revenues and expenditures (flows of funds collected and spent). The public sector has traditionally held strong positions in such spheres of activity as defense, basic scientific research, education, health care, culture, and utilities. The scale of the public sector largely depends not only on the objective economic opportunities of the country, but also on the traditions and characteristics of the policy pursued. According to Wagner's law (formulated at the end of the 19th century), the share of the public sector in the economy is constantly increasing in the historical perspective. The German economist associated this pattern with the process of conquering the private market by public goods.

In the new economic conditions, when the state acts as one of the subjects of the market, and in the public sector they begin to interact along with state and public, non-profit, private, mixed organizations, it becomes necessary to change the organizational and functional structure of public finance, which will allow, while maintaining the regulatory role of the state, to ensure a balance between the volume of social needs and the possibilities of meeting them.

In the first case, we are talking about the demand for public goods, in the second case, about their supply. The real existence of these by nature market phenomena in the non-market public sector determines the need to establish a balance between them. In other words, a non-market balancing mechanism is needed, included in the market economic turnover of the public sector. In the market sector, a similar mechanism is the process of free pricing, as a result of which a balance is established between supply and demand for private goods. But even in this case, market equilibrium is based on indirect institutional constraints imposed by the state (taxes, subsidies, price level limitation).

In the public sector, the regulatory mechanism has a fundamentally different design and specificity, due to the specifics of the demand and supply of public goods. The nature of public goods dictates the need to meet the demand for them evenly. The offer of public goods differs in that it is implemented by state and public organizations, although most of the costs of obtaining these goods are borne by consumers, that is, members of society in the form of taxes, voluntary payments. In the first case, we are talking about forcing economic agents to participate in the production of public goods, in the second case, about their voluntary participation in this process. Ensuring a balance between supply and demand for public goods is largely influenced by the part of this process that is implemented in the public sector, since a significant amount of public goods is produced here. This kind of balancing mechanism in the domestic literature is called financial and budgetary, which is established between supply and demand for public goods, is defined as "budgetary equilibrium." The concept of budgetary equilibrium reveals the nature and essence of the mechanism for the creation and distribution of public goods, and, taking into account the collective nature of their consumption, reflects the need to use compulsory and compulsory instruments of influence on business entities to ensure the formation of public goods.

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What is the economic structure of a city?

Sectors of the urban economy. The development of a city's economy depends on its geographic location, functions in the settlement system, the intensity of industrial ties with the surrounding area, the number of economically active population, and the capacity of the basic industries.

The economy of each city consists of three main sectors - basic, service and household sectors.

Base sector has a city-forming role. His enterprises produce goods and services that are taken out (exported) outside the city. The proceeds from their export are used to purchase products from other regions of the country and the world. The dynamics of the population of the city is connected with the development of the basic sector; it is the enterprises of the basic sector that define the “face” of the city in the region, country, and the world. The basic sector of the urban economy includes such industries as industry, construction, higher education, management, external transport.

Part service sector includes enterprises that provide both the basic sector (repair shops, research organizations) and the lives of people: dry cleaners, laundries, restaurants, repair shops, etc. Household sector- these are non-working pensioners, housewives, children.

Basic employment are employees of enterprises of the basic sector, serving- workers in other sectors of the urban economy.

To assess the economic efficiency and development prospects of the city, the index is used basic employment, calculated as the ratio of the number of people employed in the export industry to the number of all citizens.

In cities of less developed countries, the so-called informal sector... It employs migrants who have recently arrived from rural areas and do not have a permanent job. They make a living by carrying and selling water, newspapers, souvenirs, shoe shining and other unskilled labor, that is, work that is not related to either the basic or the service sector.

The level of specialization of the urban economy is determined using localization index, calculated as the ratio of the share of the industry in the urban economy to the share of the same industry in the economy of the country (world). For calculations, data on the number of employees or on the cost of manufactured products are used.

Urban animator: Lowry's model. Lowry's model reflects the interconnection of the sectors of the urban economy and their mutual influence on the growth of the population of the city. The development of basic industries leads to an expansion of service industries and an increase in employment both in themselves and in the household sector.

Lowry's model

Consider the interdependence of the sectors of the urban economy in the example of a small town, where the base sector and base employment are associated with the development of an iron ore deposit located in the vicinity. The export of ore allows the city to purchase food and commodities for residents and equipment for the operation of the basic sector. Ore mining leads to the development of technologically related industries: processing plants, repair shops, equipment manufacturing enterprises. In turn, the number of people employed in management, education, and the household sector is growing. In the early stages, employment growth in the basic sector occurs mainly due to the attraction of labor from other regions or from rural areas.

Suppose there are 100 miners in town to work at the mine; this means that basic employment in the city will increase by 100 jobs. How will other sectors of the urban economy "behave"? If the family of each miner consists of four people (the head of the family is an employee of the basic sector, an unemployed wife and two children), then the population of the city as a whole will increase by 400 people. (including the basic sector - by 100, and the household sector - by 300 people). Thus, the base multiplier is 4. For the normal life of these people, it is necessary to build new hospitals, dry cleaners, bakeries. This will inevitably lead to an increase in employment in the service sector.

Typically, the growth of the household sector by 10 people. leads to an increase in employment in the service sector by one place. Thus, the serving sector multiplier is 1/10.

Investments in the real sector of the economy: how not to miscalculate

Obviously, everyone employed in the service sector has a family, whose members, in turn, must have access to the service sector, that is, the expansion of the service sector leads to the expansion of the household sector and the service sector itself. So the circles of expansion of the city's population are increasing. When the miners' children grow up and learn, they are likely to go to work in the basic and service sectors, that is, a new circle of growth will begin for all sectors of the urban economy.

In real calculations according to the Lowry model, concepts are used such as the "zone limiter" (it is assumed that housing construction cannot infinitely expand and occupy land intended for industrial enterprises) and "threshold limiter" (there are threshold values for the number of people at which the creation of enterprises the service sector can be considered economically justified - for example, when the population grows by 1000 people, it becomes necessary to build a polyclinic, and by 5000 people - a hospital).

where h Is the household sector multiplier;

s Is the multiplier of the serving sector.

Thus, with the growth of the basic sector by 100 people. in the first round of expansion, the total population of the city will grow to 667 people:

Over time, when ore reserves are depleted, mines and concentrators begin to close, employment in the basic and service sectors will decline. If the authorities do not take measures - to pursue a regional policy, the city and the surrounding area will turn into a classic depressed area with a falling standard of living, environmental and social problems and constant opposition to the government.

If the authorities make a decision to support the urban economy, a policy is being pursued to attract new basic industries, develop appropriate infrastructure, and retrain personnel. If, due to the geographical location of the city (harsh natural conditions, remoteness from the country's economic centers), specific economic skills and the level of education of the population, new industries “refuse” to migrate, the townspeople may be asked to move to more promising areas.

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The real sector of the economy is the totality of all branches of material and non-material production, with the exception of financial services. This is the classic definition in economics today. However, this term has many opponents.

Alternative definition

Of course, the financial sector of the economy is connected with the real one; without one it would hardly be possible for the other to exist. For example, how can you build a powerful plant without a large investment of money? But still, in science, the separation of these two concepts is not controversial. However, "the real sector of the economy" is a term that is interpreted ambiguously by many financiers and bankers. The stumbling block is intangible production, i.e. the service sector. Many are in favor of separating, say, the production of a product from consulting on its operation, since in the latter case, in fact, a physically tangible product is not created. In simple “kitchen language”, the real sector of the economy is the production of goods that you can hold in your hands. However, this point of view does not resonate with most politicians and economists.

Concept

The real sector of the economy is the real production of goods (light industry, agriculture, etc.), infrastructure and services (including the provision of financial services without real lending). Let's move on to the industries in more detail.

Industries

The real sector of the economy is quite widely represented by various sectors of the economy. It is impossible to list everything within the framework of one article, but we will still name some:

Gas industry.
Coal industry.
Agricultural sector.
Transport (this also includes the gas transmission system).
Peat industry.
Construction (production of materials and provision of services).
Food industry.
Culture, health care, education - as a rule, they are united by the concept of "intangible service sector", etc.

Features of the real sector of the Russian economy

The sectors of the Russian economy have their own characteristics:

Lack of a public sector in agriculture.
Dominance of extractive industries oriented to the world market.
Dependence of the service sector on the domestic market.

Let's take a closer look at each item.

The state left the agricultural sector

In our country, there is almost no public sector in agriculture. The state completely abandoned it after the collapse of the USSR and gave it to private farmers. Many continued to exist on the basis of the former state and collective farm system, changing only the economic form and modernizing production. Some farmers began their development along the American model of small-scale farming.

Russia on the "oil needle"

In Russia, for many decades, the dominance of industries for the extraction of raw materials and fuel, oriented to the external market, has been traced. No matter what politicians tell us about the need to get rid of the "oil needle", in fact, over the past decades, the dependence of the federal budget on the raw materials industries has only increased. This is due to the fact that since the beginning of the 2000s, prices for hydrocarbons and other resources have skyrocketed, which negatively affected other sectors of the economy. In fact, the budget was overfilled with petrodollars, which led to high inflation and higher prices. This, in turn, did not allow other sectors of the Russian economy to develop, since all investments were made in "fat industries", and also went to support social projects.

For a long time, the Russian authorities assured the population that the development of economic sectors is proceeding in a complex manner and we are no longer dependent on gas and oil. But as soon as the world prices for energy resources fell by half, a huge deficit immediately appeared in the budget, which was covered by additional monetary emission. This, in turn, led to a fall in the Russian currency and a two-fold increase in prices.

Emission and devaluation are additional instruments that are in the hands of the state. Public sector wages and pensions can be paid in the same amount and on time, but you can buy them in supermarkets in half. This is tantamount to halving salaries and pensions.

Orientation of the service sector to the domestic market

As noted above, the real sector of the economy also includes the service sector. In Russia, it is aimed at meeting the needs of the domestic consumer. Recent events have shown that such a development model is far from ideal: sanctions, counter-sanctions, and the global energy crisis hit the domestic consumer. As a result, domestic demand decreased, and no one was oriented towards the external market. As a result, we got a huge crisis in the entire consumer services market. People began to do the cleaning themselves in their free time, to relax without prejudice to their personal budget, etc.

Public Sector Economics

The public sector refers primarily to the public sector. Those. the economy of the public sector is aimed at serving the interests of the whole society. Its main areas are:

provision of public goods;
redistribution of income and expenses through taxes, social sphere, etc .;
production and sale of goods and services for commercial purposes at state enterprises.

The last point may raise questions from readers, so we will try to explain it. The point is that profits from state-owned enterprises go entirely to the state budget. Now we are talking about how it should be in theory, without taking into account the corruption aspect of this issue. All profits are not spent on the purchase of yachts, villas, expensive cars, but on the development of health care, education, science, culture, i.e. brings social benefits. Therefore, profit from commercial activities of state-owned enterprises is included in the category of the economy of the public sector (public sector).

Features of the public sector in Russia

We have already said a little about the fact that the state has completely abandoned agriculture. However, it did not refuse to participate in the economy. On the contrary, in recent years the share of the state in the economy has only been growing. As a rule, this manifests itself in the purchase of a controlling stake in the country's largest enterprises, on which the safety of the entire society sometimes depends. These are the country's leading banks (Sberbank, VTB, Gazprombank), the largest oil and gas producing enterprises (Gazprom, Rosneft, Lukoil, etc.), defense and strategic enterprises (Russian Railways, Research Institute of Chemical Reagents and highly pure chemicals, etc.).

However, the public sector faces many challenges. The key ones are the lack of effective management and excessive bureaucracy. The public sector in the West, for example, was present for a long time only in the advanced, unexplored sectors of the economy, in which ordinary investors were afraid to invest. The state there acted as a locomotive for the development of science and technology, showing new stages of development. In our country, on the contrary, the state allocates money to "proven areas" that do not have long-term development prospects.

The state of the real sector of the economy is influenced by:

After World War II, the real sector of the economy in the former USSR underwent several stages in its development.

1945-1950 - reorientation of industry from military production to peaceful lines (conversion); the period 1950-1970 was characterized by rapid and efficient economic development; 1971-1991 - relatively high, but decaying rates of development. Since 1991, the process of transition to a market economy began, due to a slowdown in economic growth, the emergence of intersectoral imbalances, a fall in capital productivity, the efficiency of capital investments, and a high level of militarization of the economy of the former USSR. At the same time, the transition to a market system was accompanied by a number of structural, financial and systemic crises.

The state of the real sector of the economy is significantly influenced by:

the state of the financial market and, first of all, the level of interest rates, on which the ability of enterprises to resort to short-term and long-term bank loans to replenish working capital and make capital investments depends;
foreign trade balance of the country;
the investment climate in the country, the presence of favorable conditions for investments, primarily direct ones;
state policy that guarantees the rights of investors, provides opportunities for the repatriation of profits, the creation of conditions under which it is impossible to revise the results of privatization;
the presence or absence of restrictions in foreign economic activity.

For the normal functioning of enterprises in the real sector of the economy, an adequate tax system is also required.

Economic sector

Page 1

The primary economic sector includes agriculture, horticulture, forestry and fisheries, oil, minerals and natural gas, mining and quarrying, and the water industry. All of them can be defined as extractive industries.

The secondary economic sector is often referred to as the manufacturing sector and includes manufacturing industries. The construction industry is also included in this sector, but sometimes it is treated as a separate category on the basis that it covers various types of services along with construction. Note that the concept of primary and secondary sectors is used in a different sense in the theory of labor market segmentation.

An analysis of the functioning of the economic sector in recent years shows that one of the main means of restoring and developing market methods of management is increasingly being securities that fix the ownership of capital. It seems that this is an extremely important factor in the system of legal principles in the economic life of the country. It also testifies to the fact that civilized market relations are developing in the state, and that the legislation on securities, although it needs to be improved, has already been formed on the whole.

Wang Xueven identified the socio-economic structure and the economic sector.

The prospects for training specialists in specific specialties of the economic sector, the possibilities of expanding the specialization of educational institutions, determined by the project, the main trends in the development of specialized enterprises for them are established on the basis of an analysis carried out by specially created groups in pilot educational institutions.

To ensure consistency between the accumulation accounts in current transactions of the economic sectors and the country and the balance of accumulated economic non-financial assets, the latter should be valued at replacement cost less depreciation (residual value) and at current market value. To analyze the dynamics of changes in the volume of accumulated assets, it is necessary to evaluate them in prices of a certain base year.

How quickly and when prices rise, and which economic sectors are more or less affected and to what extent, depends on a number of factors. First, and most importantly, technological innovation can slow price increases by lowering production costs. Secondly, it is critically important where and to whom the credit institutions get new loans. For example, there was a huge credit expansion between 1927 and 1929, but production and consumer prices rose marginally.

When calculating the second method, GDP is obtained by adding up the expenditures of all economic sectors on final consumption and gross capital formation, as well as net exports. At the same time, final consumption expenditures are subdivided into expenditures of households, government agencies (public sector organizations) and non-profit organizations (NPOs) serving households. In final consumption expenditures, expenditures on goods, individual and collective services are distinguished. Gross capital formation consists of gross fixed capital formation and changes in inventories.

In general, slowly but surely, the complex of human reproduction is becoming an essential economic sector, occupying an increasingly large part of the service sector. At the same time, it is often depreciated by transport difficulties, overwork of vacationers, low culture of service and anti-ecological friendliness of the resort complexes themselves. Huge crowds of people make the beaches very unsuitable for recreation and unsanitary centers.

In most countries, there are general stock price indices and stock price indices for various sectors of the economic sector. These indices can be used to track market changes within a country and, more importantly, to benchmark performance measurements. Important indices include the Financial Times-Stock Exchange 100 Index (also known as FT-SE) of the London Stock Exchange; Nikkei 225 Average of Tokyo Stock Exchange and TSE 300 Composite Index of Toronto Stock Exchange.

How diverse and developed are the markets for your company's products, the geographic distribution of sales, and the number and type of economic sectors your businesses serve.

The industrial strength of the international labor movement lies in the international associations of specific trade unions, usually originating from the same sectoral, industrial or economic sector. Known as Secretariats for International Trade (ITSs) or International Trade Unions (TUIs), they can be independent, affiliated, or run by international trade unions. For example, in 1995 there were 13 active International Trade Secretariats affiliated with the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, distributed as follows: construction and woodworking; chemical and mining industry, energy; commercial, office, professional and technical activities; education; entertainment; food, agriculture, restaurants and home delivery; graphic works; journalism; metal processing; post and telecommunications; public service; textiles, clothing and leatherwork; transport. International trade secretariats are mainly focused on issues related to the industry, such as industrial disputes and wage rates, but also on the application of occupational safety and health provisions in a specific sector. They provide information, education, training and other services to affiliated unions. They also help coordinate international solidarity between trade unions in different countries and represent workers' interests in various international and regional forums.

The economic activity of the imperialist state, undoubtedly, presupposes, firstly, state ownership of the means of production, and secondly, the role of the state in relation to other economic sectors. This function characterizes the active attitude of the bourgeois state to the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of material goods. However, the state-monopoly, military-bureaucratic, anti-democratic regulation of economic life, corresponding to the will and interests of monopoly capital and aimed at preserving its domination, is unable to curb the spontaneous forces of the capitalist market.

The first type of abrasive department includes: a supply bureau for abrasive and diamond tools; planning and dispatch office, accounting; bureau of technical supervision over the operation of abrasive, diamond tools and diamond substitutes; management of the abrasive shop with the technical part, the economic sector and the sector of rationing and wages.

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The essence of the economic sector

One of the main systems studied by economic theory is the national economic system. Its effectiveness is determined by macroeconomic indicators that describe the cumulative results of activities over a certain period. It should be noted that the country's economy is a complex system consisting of many elements. Studying and researching its processes requires a more detailed approach, therefore the country's economic system is conventionally divided into economic sectors.

Remark 1

The economic sector usually includes many economic entities whose activities are similar and have approximately the same goals. Each of the institutional units performs similar functions and has the same funding sources as other entities in the sector.

The division into sectors can be made with respect to various characteristics:

According to the owner of the property, the public and private sectors are distinguished.
Depending on the production cycle, they talk about the primary, secondary, tertiary sectors.
The peculiarity of economic activity forms the non-manufacturing, manufacturing and financial sectors.
In relation to the main economic entity, the sectors are divided into the public sector, the sector of households, enterprises and external agents.

One of the most important economic sectors is the real sector. This is where the production of most of the goods consumed by society takes place. Next comes the process of distribution, exchange and consumption of products or services. The production process is always accompanied by a counter movement of finance. The real sector provides jobs for households and brings a significant share of income to the state budget. The development of this sector has a direct impact on the state of the country's economy as a whole.

Sectoral composition of the real sector

The work of the real sector is important, first of all, to ensure the well-being of the population and the stability of the country's economic system. Much attention is paid to the development of this sector in different countries. Structurally, the real sector is a rather complex system, represented by many different enterprises, commercial organizations and other forms of companies, whose main goal is to make a profit.

The real sector can also be divided into subsystems. Most often, the spheres of material and non-material production are distinguished. The first is the creation of products expressed in material and material form. Intangible goods are usually represented by intellectual property, various kinds of patents, licenses. This area provides consulting, information and other types of services that will also generate income.

Usually the real sector of the economy is considered as a set of sectors of the national economy. The ratio of their shares shows the economic orientation of the country's economic system, its potential and ability to withstand environmental factors. In terms of industries, the real sector can be viewed as a combination of two areas:

Export-oriented industries and industries serving them. If we talk about Russia, then this group is formed by the fuel and energy complex, the timber industry, pipeline transport. Their share in the entire structure of the economy does not exceed 5%, while they bring up to half of the total income of the country's economy.
Industries whose products are focused on the domestic market. They are distinguished by a low level of competitiveness, so they do not bring tangible income.

However, construction and trade can generate higher incomes for the employed population.

Remark 2

There is a national classifier of sectors of the national economy, although in practice it is customary to divide the real sector according to a simpler principle. Allocate agriculture, industry, transport and communication services, trade and construction. Each of the industries has its own specific product and method of making a profit. At the same time, they can form industrial or other types of complexes, where several industries are in mutually beneficial cooperation with each other.

It should be noted that the spheres of material and non-material production are closely related to each other and cannot exist separately. At the same time, the main source of income for the state budget remains the industries whose products are exported.

Real sector enterprises

An enterprise is a business unit primarily engaged in the production of economic goods. It makes a profit by selling the created product or service.

Under the conditions of a market model of the economy, enterprises have the right to carry out independent activities that do not contradict the legislation of the country. Company owners have the right to freely dispose of part of the profits and use it at their own discretion. To generate income, all property of the enterprise is used, as well as its own and borrowed funds. The second goal of the business entity is to meet the social need for a certain economic benefit.

Remark 3

Since the main focus of the business of the real sector is indicated by the receipt of income, the performance of this sector is also determined in monetary units. To understand the content of the real sector, it is necessary to disassemble its infrastructure, which is understood as the economic relations between the entities that contribute to the economic growth of the country.

The production infrastructure includes economic objects that create benefits, as well as promote and implement them. This includes various types of industrial enterprises, marketing companies, consulting, telecommunications and trade organizations. Non-manufacturing enterprises usually do not create products and do not directly affect the producer-buyer relationship. This subsector is usually represented by governmental and non-governmental institutions producing public goods.

Enterprises in a particular industry produce the corresponding goods or services. So the agro-industrial complex is characterized by the creation of agricultural products, cattle breeding, as well as special equipment, chemicals necessary for this field of activity.

Industrial enterprises specialize in the extraction of minerals, their processing and the creation of semi-finished products, or finished finished goods. The timber industry specializes in logging, as well as in the production of material values from wood. Enterprises in each of the industries have their own focus, their own product and method of making a profit.